ABSTRACT
This study explores the interlinkages between sustainable resource management and inclusive rural development in Taiwan. The study highlights the country’s efforts and challenges in integrating ecological conservation with rural regeneration by drawing on national policy analysis, spatial resource assessments, and rural program evaluations. Taiwan’s natural resource governance has evolved with sector-specific laws and programs, yet it still faces fragmentation in implementation. Simultaneously, rural areas are experiencing population aging, farmland abandonment, and growing social disparities. This study identifies strategic entry points for advancing cross-sectoral coordination, community empowerment, multifunctional land use, and youth engagement by analyzing initiatives such as the Satoyama Initiative Taiwan Partnership and the Rural Regeneration Program. It concludes by proposing a place-based and participatory governance model to align biodiversity protection with local economic revitalization, offering insights for sustainable and equitable rural transformation.
Keywords: Sustainable resource management; rural development; Satoyama Initiative; Taiwan; multifunctional landscapes; environmental governance; community participation
INTRODUCTION
Sustainable resource management and inclusive rural development are two interdependent pillars of national resilience, particularly in regions experiencing rapid socio-environmental transitions. In the case of Taiwan, these issues have gained renewed policy and academic attention amid rising concerns about climate change, demographic shifts, and rural decline. Taiwan's complex geography, ecological fragility, and uneven regional development make integrating natural resource governance with social and economic revitalization strategies essential.
Natural resources such as forests, agricultural land, freshwater ecosystems, and coastal zones, play a central role in supporting rural livelihoods and maintaining ecosystem functions. However, decades of industrialization and urban expansion have exerted considerable pressure on these resources, often leading to land fragmentation, biodiversity loss, and degradation of traditional agricultural landscapes. Simultaneously, many rural areas in Taiwan face declining populations, aging communities, limited economic diversification, and increasing disparities in public service access.
While Taiwan has developed a range of policies addressing environmental conservation and rural development independently, integrated approaches that simultaneously pursue ecological sustainability and rural inclusion remain limited. This study aims to explore how Taiwan can promote sustainable resource management while also advancing inclusive rural development, focusing on current policy frameworks, emerging challenges, and strategic opportunities. By linking ecological stewardship with rural regeneration, Taiwan has the potential to develop a more balanced and resilient model of territorial development.
CURRENT NATURAL RESOURCES AND POLICY IN TAIWAN
Taiwan is endowed with diverse natural resources, including rich forest ecosystems, mountainous terrains, fertile agricultural land, coastal wetlands, and freshwater bodies. Approximately 58% of Taiwan’s land area is covered by forests, many of which are in mountainous regions that serve critical ecological functions such as water conservation, soil stabilization, and biodiversity protection. In addition, Taiwan’s subtropical climate supports a wide range of agricultural production, including rice, tea, fruits, and vegetables, contributing both to domestic food security and rural livelihoods.
Over the past decades, Taiwan’s government has developed multiple policies and legal frameworks to manage and conserve natural resources. Key legislations include the Forestry Act, the Soil and Water Conservation Act, the Environmental Education Act, and the National Land Planning Act. These laws are supported by sectoral strategies such as the Taiwan Forest Resources Survey, National Green Network Plan, and Ecological Conservation Policy Guidelines. Governmental bodies such as the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA now; COA in the past) and its subordinate agencies—namely the Forestry and Nature Conservation Agency and Rural Development and Soil and Water Conservation Agency—play central roles in resource management and rural environmental stewardship (Ministry of Agriculture, 2024).
Despite these efforts, Taiwan’s natural resource governance remains fragmented. Land use conflicts among conservation, agriculture, infrastructure, and tourism development are frequent, often reflecting the lack of integrated cross-sector planning. Moreover, the dichotomy between environmental protection and economic development continues to dominate public discourse and institutional arrangements. For example, forest conservation programs may restrict community access to traditional livelihood resources, while agricultural policies sometimes prioritize productivity over ecological restoration. Multifunctional land-use planning has been promoted to balance environmental, agricultural, and social goals in Taiwan’s rural regions (Tsai & Chou, 2019).
Taiwan has begun to address these tensions through newer frameworks such as the Satoyama Initiative Taiwan Partnership (Table 1), Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes, and community-based forest management pilots. However, these initiatives are often limited in scale and lack long-term financial or legal support. The Satoyama concept emphasizes the harmonious coexistence of human activity and biodiversity in socio-ecological production landscapes (Takeuchi, 2010; Hara & Takeuchi, 2017). A key challenge lies in strengthening coordination across ministries and embedding sustainability goals into mainstream land and rural development policies.
CURRENT RURAL CHALLENGES AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT POLICY IN TAIWAN
Rural areas in Taiwan face multifaceted and interrelated challenges that threaten their long-term sustainability and social vitality. Chief among these are population decline, aging demographics, agricultural land abandonment, and insufficient infrastructure and public services. According to national statistics, more than 40% of Taiwan’s rural population is over the age of 65 in some regions, with youth outmigration leading to weakened labor availability and diminished intergenerational knowledge transfer. These demographic shifts have not only reduced the viability of traditional farming systems but have also led to the decline of rural communities as centers of culture, identity, and innovation.
The abandonment or underutilization of farmland has further exacerbated the problem. According to the data from the Council of Agriculture, approximately 30% of registered farmland is either idle or marginally used. Factors contributing to this include low agricultural profitability, land fragmentation, lack of successors, and limited access to modern technologies. Meanwhile, many rural areas struggle with insufficient healthcare, education, and transportation services, deepening the urban–rural divide and limiting the prospects for inclusive development.
In response to these challenges, Taiwan’s government has implemented a series of rural development initiatives over the past two decades. Notable among these are the Rural Regeneration Act (2010) and its accompanying Rural Regeneration Program, which provides funding and capacity-building support for local communities to engage in place-based planning, landscape revitalization, and cultural heritage preservation (Tables 2 and 3). This aligns with prior findings that highlight the importance of community participation and capacity building in Taiwan’s rural regeneration efforts (Lin & Liu, 2017). The program emphasizes participatory governance and community empowerment, aiming to promote endogenous rural development.
Other relevant policies include the Multi-Employment Promotion Program, which supports job diversification in rural areas; the Young Farmers Cultivation Program, which encourages youth engagement in sustainable agriculture; and the Land Consolidation and Reuse Projects, which seek to improve the efficiency and ecological function of rural land use.
Despite these efforts, rural development in Taiwan often faces sectoral fragmentation, with policies scattered across agriculture, environment, tourism, and cultural affairs. In addition, top-down planning approaches may overlook local context and exclude marginalized voices such as small-scale farmers, Indigenous communities, and women. As such, there is a growing consensus that a more integrated, inclusive, and territorially sensitive rural development framework is needed—one that can respond to both environmental challenges and social inequalities.
DISCUSSION: HOW TO PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND INCLUSIVE RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN TAIWAN
Sustainable rural development involves managing complex interactions within coupled human and natural systems (Liu et al., 2007). Achieving the dual goals of sustainable resource management and inclusive rural development in Taiwan requires a more integrated, cross-sectoral, and participatory approach to territorial governance. As discussed in the previous sections, current policies tend to treat environmental conservation and rural revitalization as separate domains. However, in practice, these two areas are deeply intertwined. For example, forest management strategies may influence agricultural land use and community access to ecosystem services, while rural development projects can affect ecological connectivity, biodiversity, and landscape resilience. To address these interdependencies, Taiwan must move beyond sector-specific programs and adopt place-based, people-centered strategies that reflect the unique socio-ecological conditions of different regions. The following key directions are proposed:
Integrating land use and natural resource planning
One of the primary barriers to sustainable development in Taiwan is fragmented land governance. Coordination with the National Spatial Plan of Taiwan (Ministry of the Interior, 2018) provides a legal framework for integrating land use with rural sustainability. Aligning the objectives of the National Spatial Plan, Rural Regeneration Program, and natural resource conservation policies is essential. A cross-ministerial coordination mechanism—linking agencies such as the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Environmental Protection Administration—should be established to ensure that land use decisions consider both ecological sustainability and rural economic viability. Integrating ecosystem services into spatial planning frameworks has been recommended for aligning development with ecological sustainability (Hsu & Lin, 2020).
In addition, planning tools such as ecosystem service mapping, landscape ecological networks, and green infrastructure assessments can be mainstreamed into rural land-use planning processes. These tools would support the identification of multifunctional landscapes that deliver both ecological and social benefits.
Empowering local communities and multi-stakeholder collaboration
Community participation is key to the success of both environmental stewardship and rural development. Taiwan’s experience with the Rural Regeneration Program demonstrates the importance—and limitations—of community engagement. Moving forward, institutional mechanisms should enable genuine co-management, allowing local actors, Indigenous communities, farmers' groups, and NGOs to co-design and co-implement policies.
Financial incentives such as Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES), community forestry programs, and eco-agriculture subsidies can support livelihood diversification while promoting conservation behavior. Capacity building, leadership training, and participatory planning platforms are also critical for fostering long-term local ownership.
Supporting youth engagement and innovation in rural areas
Taiwan’s rural sustainability depends on the next generation. Strategies to attract and retain young people in rural areas must go beyond agricultural support to include rural entrepreneurship, digital infrastructure, creative industries, and social innovation. Programs such as the Young Farmers Cultivation Program and Rural Social Enterprises Initiative can be scaled up and integrated with environmental goals, creating new livelihood models that link ecological restoration with local economic development.
Institutionalizing integrated indicators and monitoring
Finally, a robust monitoring and evaluation framework is essential. Taiwan should develop integrated indicators that track not only economic and demographic trends in rural areas but also ecological performance, resource use efficiency, and social inclusion. Such indicators can inform adaptive policymaking and ensure transparency and accountability in program outcomes.
CONCLUSION
Taiwan faces a critical moment in aligning environmental sustainability with rural revitalization. While the country has made considerable progress in developing both natural resource management and rural development policies, these two domains have largely evolved in parallel, often without sufficient coordination or mutual reinforcement. As emphasized by the OECD (2024), addressing rural well-being requires place-based strategies that reflect geographic and demographic disparities. This study highlights the urgent need to bridge this gap through integrated, inclusive, and place-based strategies that recognize the complex interdependencies between ecosystems and communities.
The findings suggest that sustainable resource management cannot succeed without the active participation of rural populations, and that rural development must go beyond economic regeneration to include ecological resilience and social equity. Promoting high-quality urban and rural green infrastructure, maintaining multifunctional landscapes, and empowering local actors are essential for achieving these dual objectives. Furthermore, fostering youth participation, supporting innovation, and establishing coherent governance mechanisms will be crucial for sustaining momentum over the long term.
As Taiwan continues to pursue its national sustainability goals under changing climatic, demographic, and economic conditions, the path forward must embrace co-management, cross-sectoral collaboration, and adaptive planning. By embedding environmental and social values into rural policy frameworks, Taiwan can serve as a model for integrating nature and people into development, thereby advancing both ecological stewardship and inclusive growth.
REFERENCES
Lin, H. C., & Liu, W. Y. (2017). Community participation and sustainability in Taiwan’s rural regeneration. Journal of Rural Studies, 54, 326–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.06.004
Hsu, M. J., & Lin, C. H. (2020). Integrating ecosystem services into land-use planning: The case of Taiwan. Sustainability, 12(3), 887. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12030887
Ministry of Agriculture. (2024). Annual Report on Agricultural Development in Taiwan. Executive Yuan.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2023). Human development report 2021/2022: Uncertain times, unsettled lives. https://hdr.undp.org
Tsai, Y. H., & Chou, Y. M. (2019). Planning multifunctional rural landscapes in Taiwan: A socio-ecological perspective. Land Use Policy, 83, 134–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.01.041
Takeuchi, K. (2010). Rebuilding the relationship between people and nature: The Satoyama Initiative. Ecological Research, 25(5), 891–897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-010-0745-8
Hara, K., & Takeuchi, K. (2017). Satoyama landscapes and biodiversity: Experiences from Japan and their relevance to global policy. Landscape and Ecological Engineering, 13(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11355-017-0314-6
Liu, J., Dietz, T., Carpenter, S. R., Alberti, M., Folke, C., Moran, E., (D & Ostrom, E. (2007). Complexity of coupled human and natural systems. Science, 317(5844), 1513–1516. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1144004
OECD. (2024). Rural Well-being: Geography of Opportunities. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/d25cef80-en
Ministry of the Interior. (2018). National Spatial Plan for Taiwan (2018–2048). National Land Planning and Management Center, Taiwan.
Promoting Sustainable Resource Management and Inclusive Rural Development in Taiwan
ABSTRACT
This study explores the interlinkages between sustainable resource management and inclusive rural development in Taiwan. The study highlights the country’s efforts and challenges in integrating ecological conservation with rural regeneration by drawing on national policy analysis, spatial resource assessments, and rural program evaluations. Taiwan’s natural resource governance has evolved with sector-specific laws and programs, yet it still faces fragmentation in implementation. Simultaneously, rural areas are experiencing population aging, farmland abandonment, and growing social disparities. This study identifies strategic entry points for advancing cross-sectoral coordination, community empowerment, multifunctional land use, and youth engagement by analyzing initiatives such as the Satoyama Initiative Taiwan Partnership and the Rural Regeneration Program. It concludes by proposing a place-based and participatory governance model to align biodiversity protection with local economic revitalization, offering insights for sustainable and equitable rural transformation.
Keywords: Sustainable resource management; rural development; Satoyama Initiative; Taiwan; multifunctional landscapes; environmental governance; community participation
INTRODUCTION
Sustainable resource management and inclusive rural development are two interdependent pillars of national resilience, particularly in regions experiencing rapid socio-environmental transitions. In the case of Taiwan, these issues have gained renewed policy and academic attention amid rising concerns about climate change, demographic shifts, and rural decline. Taiwan's complex geography, ecological fragility, and uneven regional development make integrating natural resource governance with social and economic revitalization strategies essential.
Natural resources such as forests, agricultural land, freshwater ecosystems, and coastal zones, play a central role in supporting rural livelihoods and maintaining ecosystem functions. However, decades of industrialization and urban expansion have exerted considerable pressure on these resources, often leading to land fragmentation, biodiversity loss, and degradation of traditional agricultural landscapes. Simultaneously, many rural areas in Taiwan face declining populations, aging communities, limited economic diversification, and increasing disparities in public service access.
While Taiwan has developed a range of policies addressing environmental conservation and rural development independently, integrated approaches that simultaneously pursue ecological sustainability and rural inclusion remain limited. This study aims to explore how Taiwan can promote sustainable resource management while also advancing inclusive rural development, focusing on current policy frameworks, emerging challenges, and strategic opportunities. By linking ecological stewardship with rural regeneration, Taiwan has the potential to develop a more balanced and resilient model of territorial development.
CURRENT NATURAL RESOURCES AND POLICY IN TAIWAN
Taiwan is endowed with diverse natural resources, including rich forest ecosystems, mountainous terrains, fertile agricultural land, coastal wetlands, and freshwater bodies. Approximately 58% of Taiwan’s land area is covered by forests, many of which are in mountainous regions that serve critical ecological functions such as water conservation, soil stabilization, and biodiversity protection. In addition, Taiwan’s subtropical climate supports a wide range of agricultural production, including rice, tea, fruits, and vegetables, contributing both to domestic food security and rural livelihoods.
Over the past decades, Taiwan’s government has developed multiple policies and legal frameworks to manage and conserve natural resources. Key legislations include the Forestry Act, the Soil and Water Conservation Act, the Environmental Education Act, and the National Land Planning Act. These laws are supported by sectoral strategies such as the Taiwan Forest Resources Survey, National Green Network Plan, and Ecological Conservation Policy Guidelines. Governmental bodies such as the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA now; COA in the past) and its subordinate agencies—namely the Forestry and Nature Conservation Agency and Rural Development and Soil and Water Conservation Agency—play central roles in resource management and rural environmental stewardship (Ministry of Agriculture, 2024).
Despite these efforts, Taiwan’s natural resource governance remains fragmented. Land use conflicts among conservation, agriculture, infrastructure, and tourism development are frequent, often reflecting the lack of integrated cross-sector planning. Moreover, the dichotomy between environmental protection and economic development continues to dominate public discourse and institutional arrangements. For example, forest conservation programs may restrict community access to traditional livelihood resources, while agricultural policies sometimes prioritize productivity over ecological restoration. Multifunctional land-use planning has been promoted to balance environmental, agricultural, and social goals in Taiwan’s rural regions (Tsai & Chou, 2019).
Taiwan has begun to address these tensions through newer frameworks such as the Satoyama Initiative Taiwan Partnership (Table 1), Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes, and community-based forest management pilots. However, these initiatives are often limited in scale and lack long-term financial or legal support. The Satoyama concept emphasizes the harmonious coexistence of human activity and biodiversity in socio-ecological production landscapes (Takeuchi, 2010; Hara & Takeuchi, 2017). A key challenge lies in strengthening coordination across ministries and embedding sustainability goals into mainstream land and rural development policies.
CURRENT RURAL CHALLENGES AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT POLICY IN TAIWAN
Rural areas in Taiwan face multifaceted and interrelated challenges that threaten their long-term sustainability and social vitality. Chief among these are population decline, aging demographics, agricultural land abandonment, and insufficient infrastructure and public services. According to national statistics, more than 40% of Taiwan’s rural population is over the age of 65 in some regions, with youth outmigration leading to weakened labor availability and diminished intergenerational knowledge transfer. These demographic shifts have not only reduced the viability of traditional farming systems but have also led to the decline of rural communities as centers of culture, identity, and innovation.
The abandonment or underutilization of farmland has further exacerbated the problem. According to the data from the Council of Agriculture, approximately 30% of registered farmland is either idle or marginally used. Factors contributing to this include low agricultural profitability, land fragmentation, lack of successors, and limited access to modern technologies. Meanwhile, many rural areas struggle with insufficient healthcare, education, and transportation services, deepening the urban–rural divide and limiting the prospects for inclusive development.
In response to these challenges, Taiwan’s government has implemented a series of rural development initiatives over the past two decades. Notable among these are the Rural Regeneration Act (2010) and its accompanying Rural Regeneration Program, which provides funding and capacity-building support for local communities to engage in place-based planning, landscape revitalization, and cultural heritage preservation (Tables 2 and 3). This aligns with prior findings that highlight the importance of community participation and capacity building in Taiwan’s rural regeneration efforts (Lin & Liu, 2017). The program emphasizes participatory governance and community empowerment, aiming to promote endogenous rural development.
Other relevant policies include the Multi-Employment Promotion Program, which supports job diversification in rural areas; the Young Farmers Cultivation Program, which encourages youth engagement in sustainable agriculture; and the Land Consolidation and Reuse Projects, which seek to improve the efficiency and ecological function of rural land use.
Despite these efforts, rural development in Taiwan often faces sectoral fragmentation, with policies scattered across agriculture, environment, tourism, and cultural affairs. In addition, top-down planning approaches may overlook local context and exclude marginalized voices such as small-scale farmers, Indigenous communities, and women. As such, there is a growing consensus that a more integrated, inclusive, and territorially sensitive rural development framework is needed—one that can respond to both environmental challenges and social inequalities.
DISCUSSION: HOW TO PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND INCLUSIVE RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN TAIWAN
Sustainable rural development involves managing complex interactions within coupled human and natural systems (Liu et al., 2007). Achieving the dual goals of sustainable resource management and inclusive rural development in Taiwan requires a more integrated, cross-sectoral, and participatory approach to territorial governance. As discussed in the previous sections, current policies tend to treat environmental conservation and rural revitalization as separate domains. However, in practice, these two areas are deeply intertwined. For example, forest management strategies may influence agricultural land use and community access to ecosystem services, while rural development projects can affect ecological connectivity, biodiversity, and landscape resilience. To address these interdependencies, Taiwan must move beyond sector-specific programs and adopt place-based, people-centered strategies that reflect the unique socio-ecological conditions of different regions. The following key directions are proposed:
Integrating land use and natural resource planning
One of the primary barriers to sustainable development in Taiwan is fragmented land governance. Coordination with the National Spatial Plan of Taiwan (Ministry of the Interior, 2018) provides a legal framework for integrating land use with rural sustainability. Aligning the objectives of the National Spatial Plan, Rural Regeneration Program, and natural resource conservation policies is essential. A cross-ministerial coordination mechanism—linking agencies such as the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Environmental Protection Administration—should be established to ensure that land use decisions consider both ecological sustainability and rural economic viability. Integrating ecosystem services into spatial planning frameworks has been recommended for aligning development with ecological sustainability (Hsu & Lin, 2020).
In addition, planning tools such as ecosystem service mapping, landscape ecological networks, and green infrastructure assessments can be mainstreamed into rural land-use planning processes. These tools would support the identification of multifunctional landscapes that deliver both ecological and social benefits.
Empowering local communities and multi-stakeholder collaboration
Community participation is key to the success of both environmental stewardship and rural development. Taiwan’s experience with the Rural Regeneration Program demonstrates the importance—and limitations—of community engagement. Moving forward, institutional mechanisms should enable genuine co-management, allowing local actors, Indigenous communities, farmers' groups, and NGOs to co-design and co-implement policies.
Financial incentives such as Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES), community forestry programs, and eco-agriculture subsidies can support livelihood diversification while promoting conservation behavior. Capacity building, leadership training, and participatory planning platforms are also critical for fostering long-term local ownership.
Supporting youth engagement and innovation in rural areas
Taiwan’s rural sustainability depends on the next generation. Strategies to attract and retain young people in rural areas must go beyond agricultural support to include rural entrepreneurship, digital infrastructure, creative industries, and social innovation. Programs such as the Young Farmers Cultivation Program and Rural Social Enterprises Initiative can be scaled up and integrated with environmental goals, creating new livelihood models that link ecological restoration with local economic development.
Institutionalizing integrated indicators and monitoring
Finally, a robust monitoring and evaluation framework is essential. Taiwan should develop integrated indicators that track not only economic and demographic trends in rural areas but also ecological performance, resource use efficiency, and social inclusion. Such indicators can inform adaptive policymaking and ensure transparency and accountability in program outcomes.
CONCLUSION
Taiwan faces a critical moment in aligning environmental sustainability with rural revitalization. While the country has made considerable progress in developing both natural resource management and rural development policies, these two domains have largely evolved in parallel, often without sufficient coordination or mutual reinforcement. As emphasized by the OECD (2024), addressing rural well-being requires place-based strategies that reflect geographic and demographic disparities. This study highlights the urgent need to bridge this gap through integrated, inclusive, and place-based strategies that recognize the complex interdependencies between ecosystems and communities.
The findings suggest that sustainable resource management cannot succeed without the active participation of rural populations, and that rural development must go beyond economic regeneration to include ecological resilience and social equity. Promoting high-quality urban and rural green infrastructure, maintaining multifunctional landscapes, and empowering local actors are essential for achieving these dual objectives. Furthermore, fostering youth participation, supporting innovation, and establishing coherent governance mechanisms will be crucial for sustaining momentum over the long term.
As Taiwan continues to pursue its national sustainability goals under changing climatic, demographic, and economic conditions, the path forward must embrace co-management, cross-sectoral collaboration, and adaptive planning. By embedding environmental and social values into rural policy frameworks, Taiwan can serve as a model for integrating nature and people into development, thereby advancing both ecological stewardship and inclusive growth.
REFERENCES
Lin, H. C., & Liu, W. Y. (2017). Community participation and sustainability in Taiwan’s rural regeneration. Journal of Rural Studies, 54, 326–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.06.004
Hsu, M. J., & Lin, C. H. (2020). Integrating ecosystem services into land-use planning: The case of Taiwan. Sustainability, 12(3), 887. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12030887
Ministry of Agriculture. (2024). Annual Report on Agricultural Development in Taiwan. Executive Yuan.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2023). Human development report 2021/2022: Uncertain times, unsettled lives. https://hdr.undp.org
Tsai, Y. H., & Chou, Y. M. (2019). Planning multifunctional rural landscapes in Taiwan: A socio-ecological perspective. Land Use Policy, 83, 134–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.01.041
Takeuchi, K. (2010). Rebuilding the relationship between people and nature: The Satoyama Initiative. Ecological Research, 25(5), 891–897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-010-0745-8
Hara, K., & Takeuchi, K. (2017). Satoyama landscapes and biodiversity: Experiences from Japan and their relevance to global policy. Landscape and Ecological Engineering, 13(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11355-017-0314-6
Liu, J., Dietz, T., Carpenter, S. R., Alberti, M., Folke, C., Moran, E., (D & Ostrom, E. (2007). Complexity of coupled human and natural systems. Science, 317(5844), 1513–1516. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1144004
OECD. (2024). Rural Well-being: Geography of Opportunities. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/d25cef80-en
Ministry of the Interior. (2018). National Spatial Plan for Taiwan (2018–2048). National Land Planning and Management Center, Taiwan.