ABSTRACT
Although there have been some essential transformation and improvements made in the industrial and service sectors to some extent, agriculture still remains as the backbone of the Myanmar’s economy contributing to about 22% of its national GDP in 2021. With respect to agricultural land use, the total sown area of 19.69 million ha with a cropping intensity of 150% and 5.76 million ha of cultural wasteland depicts that Myanmar still owns, however, a favorable land man ratio. However, agricultural innovations along the supply chain have not been sufficiently adopted in the agricultural sector to achieve sizable development. Low productivity, low quality of agricultural products, limited capacity, non-modernized agro-processing industry and insufficient market diversification are the major challenges to further develop Myanmar’s agricultural sector. Current dietary patterns in Myanmar are inadequate with respect to consumption of diverse nutritious food groups across all areas studied. Long-term solutions to malnutrition require transformation of the food system along food supply chains, in food environments and across consumer behavior patterns if Myanmar is to facilitate healthier diet choices. After recent increases in overall food production, it needs to diversify the food supply chain to increase the availability of nutritious food. Homestead gardens are seen as one of the strategies to increase production and consumption of fruits and vegetables. In Myanmar, according to WFP, an analysis of purchasing patterns by wealth quintile finds that households in the richest wealth quintile spend an average of US$ 1.86 (2,740 Myanmar kyat) per person per day, with the most money spent on meat, followed by oils, fish, grains, vegetables and fruits. In contrast, households in the poorest wealth quintile spend an average of US$ 0.36 (530 Myanmar kyat) per person per day (less than 20% of what the richest spend), with the most money spent on grains, followed by oils, meat, fish, vegetables and fruits. Emphasizing improvement of nutrition and food security, policymakers should focus on diversification of crops and livestock and access to food containing protein and micronutrient dense foods, vegetables and fruits. It is important to continue the development efforts to sustain the improvements in agricultural productivity and livelihoods of small-scale farmers.
Keywords: Consumer behavior, food security, smallholder farmers, nutrition
BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEM
Although there have been some essential transformation and improvement made to industrial and service sectors to some extent, agriculture still remains as the backbone of the Myanmar economy contributing to about 22% of the national GDP in 2021. Given its diverse agro-climatic zones of Myanmar, the country produces rice, beans and pulses, oilseeds, maize, rubber, sugar, palm oil, coffee and tea and a wide range of fruit and vegetables. It produces food not only crops but also meat for consumption. Livestock and fisheries are produced with increasing importance to meet the growing domestic demand. The total export earnings of the country still largely depend on agricultural commodities including pulses, rice, oilseeds, corn and other produce. However, Myanmar trades only in raw materials for most of the agricultural commodities. Recently, the Government of Myanmar (GOM) has been trending to the diversification of agriculture although it still emphasizes rice production in its policy. Along with the policy, sown area with pulses, sesame and sunflowers have been expanding. The government is likely to promote crop diversification. However, it should be noted that crop diversification will have its maximum impact only with crop intensification.
The dominance of small farmers, who owned less than 2.02 ha and characterized with low use of inputs, traditional technology, limited farm mechanization and rather resource based agriculture, could be seen as the main characteristics of Myanmar’s agriculture. The majority of farmers in Myanmar need three important things-- investments, technologies, and markets. Thus, GOM has promulgated the policy for contract farming which provides those three important needs in an all-in-one approach. However, farmers and private sector still need to adapt to this system.
With respect to agricultural land use, the total sown area of 19.69 million ha with a cropping intensity of 150% and 5.76 million ha of cultural wasteland depicts that Myanmar still owns, however, a favorable land man ratio. Similarly, current irrigated area coverage of 2.88 million ha, use of fertilizers of 3.48 million tons, use of farm machinery in terms of number of farm tractors of 36,000, and limited use of quality seeds, etc. reveal the potential areas to be improved for the primary sector which is developed with a modest growth rate of about 1.2%.
However, agricultural innovations along the supply chain have not been sufficiently adopted in the agricultural sector to achieve sizable development. Low productivity, low quality of agricultural products, limited capacity, non-modernized agro-processing industry and insufficient market diversification are major challenges for further development of the agricultural sector. Sizable development in agriculture could be achieved through transformation and value addition processes, emphasizing on appropriate quality management systems, improvement of infrastructure for effective distribution and the food processing industry.
Sustainable food systems are: productive and prosperous (to ensure the availability of sufficient food); equitable and inclusive (to ensure access for all people to food and to livelihoods within that system); empowering and respectful (to ensure agency for all people and groups, including those who are most vulnerable and marginalized to make choices and exercise voice in shaping that system); resilient (to ensure stability in the face of shocks and crises); regenerative (to ensure sustainability in all its dimensions); and healthy and nutritious (to ensure nutrient uptake and utilization) (HLPE, 2020).
According to IHLCS in 2011, with respect to moderate malnutrition, levels stood at 32% in 2010, a non-statistically significant decline from its 2005 level of 34%. There are differences between the poor and non-poor, at 35.0% and 30.6% respectively, and between rural and urban dwellers, at 33.7% and 25.5% respectively. Malnutrition among the poor has declined from its 2005 level of 37.9%, a change which is not statistically significant. Particularly high levels are found in Rakhine (53%) and Shan (S) (48%).
In terms of severe malnutrition, levels stood at 9.1% in 2010, a non-statistically significant decline from its 2005 level of 9.4%. There are differences between the poor and non-poor, at 10.2% and 8.6% respectively, and between rural and urban dwellers, at 9.7% and 6.9% respectively. Unlike moderate malnutrition, females have higher rates than males at 10.0% and 8.3% respectively. Malnutrition among the poor has declined from its 2005 level of 11.3%, a change which is not statistically significant. Particularly high levels are found in Shan (S) (18.5%) and Rakhine (16.3%).
NUTRITION TARGET AND DIETARY PATTERN OF MYANMAR
Malnutrition includes undernourishment, micronutrient deficiencies and overweight (including obesity). Malnutrition increases susceptibility to foodborne diseases, creating a vicious cycle for health, reducing productivity and compromising development. The COVID-19 pandemic is expected to increase the risk of all forms of malnutrition (Headey et al. 2020).
The Multi-Sectoral National Plan of Action on Nutrition (MS-NPAN) was developed within the context of a supportive enabling environment, leveraging high level political commitment which recognized the importance of achieving optimal nutrition in Myanmar. The MS-NPAN targets to “reduce all forms of malnutrition in mothers, children and adolescent girls” leading to better health and more productive lives that will contribute to the overall economic and social aspirations of the country. However, recent crisis in Myanmar had significant impacts on nutrition security. The agri-food sector has been severely impacted with huge implications for food and economic security, particularly for the large number of poor people living in the rural areas. On the one hand, reduced incomes and higher prices are adversely affecting consumption and food security.
Long-term solutions to malnutrition require transformation of the food system along food supply chains, in food environments and across consumer behavior patterns if Myanmar is to facilitate healthier diet choices. After recent increases in overall food production, it needs to diversify the food supply chain to increase the availability of nutritious food. Homestead gardens are one strategy to increase production and consumption of fruit and vegetables. A homestead garden could reduce the cost of a nutritious diet for a model household by 15% (WFP Fill the Nutrient Gap Myanmar, 2019). Food environments vary throughout Myanmar, depending on diversity of ethnic groups, livelihoods, seasonality, conflict and economic status. In some rural areas, home production of fish ponds can reduce the cost of a nutritious diet by up to 20%. In urban areas, lack of time and purchasing power, combined with an abundance of inexpensive processed foods, has led to an increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity alongside persistent child undernutrition. Consumption of unhealthy snacks (high in energy and low in nutrients) increases the cost of a nutritious diet by over 20% for adolescent girls and over 90% for children under the age of 2.
Consumer behavior refers to the choices made by households and individuals determining which foods to buy, prepare and eat and how foods should be allocated among household members. Consumer behavior in the food system is influenced by the food environment, which is influenced by the food supply, with feedback and interaction across the three constituent elements. In Myanmar, an analysis of purchasing patterns by wealth quintile finds that households in the richest wealth quintile spend an average of US$ 1.86 (2,740 Myanmar kyat) per person per day, with the most money spent on meat, followed by oils, fish, grains, vegetables and fruit. In contrast, households in the poorest wealth quintile spend an average of US$ 0.36 (530 Myanmar kyat) per person per day (less than 20% of what the richest spend), with the most money spent on grains, followed by oils, meat, fish, vegetables and fruits (WFP, 2019).
Current dietary patterns in Myanmar are inadequate with respect to consumption of diverse nutritious food groups across all areas studied. The Myanmar diet largely consists of white rice. Increasing the consumption of all nutritious food groups would improve upon this staple food. Regional differences were observed for each of the other food groups, besides rice, across all study areas. Recommendations to drastically increase the consumption of plant-based foods, such as vegetables, fruits and legumes, are in line with the diet recommendations for planetary health. These should be prioritized in all regions of Myanmar for improved health and nutrition of the whole population.
In many cases, food allocation, in terms of quantity and sharing of food preferred by households, is not based on nutrient-density needs but on perceived energy requirements and intra-household dynamics. It means that insufficient proportion and total amount could be allocated to household members in need of more nutrient-dense foods. Prioritization and improving the purchasing power of households to buy nutritious food are crucial for improving access to nutritious diets.
FOOD AVAILABILITY AND ACCESS TO FOODS
Myanmar has seen a remarkable improvement in per capita food production in recent decades. The percentage of the population whose caloric needs would not be met by the domestic food supply (1,800 kcal per capita per day) has decreased significantly from 63% of the population in 1990 to 11% in 2017. The expansion in food production has surpassed population growth and these figures represent a reduction from 27 million people whose caloric needs would not have been met by domestic food supply in 1990 to 5.6 million people in 2017. After experiencing significant growth in domestic food production, there is new potential for Myanmar to expand from producing enough food to diversifying production and increasing productivity.
Currently, production is dominated by rice, with 1.2 kilograms of rice per capita produced daily, followed by sugarcane with close to 500 grams per capita produced daily. In comparison, 270 grams per capita of vegetables are produced daily and less than 70 grams per capita of fruit are produced daily. Around 250 grams per capita of beans are produced daily, contributing to US$1.4 billion annual earnings from beans and pulses exported predominately to India (WFP, 2019). However, recent crisis and disruption of global commodity markets caused by the war in Ukraine has significant adverse impacts on farmers by reducing their access to agricultural inputs and creating disruptions in market infrastructure and logistics which in turn impact domestic and international food trade. Exporter continues to face a range of challenges such as increased transportation, logistics and input costs. Higher freight costs and more stringent food safety standards have reduced regular trade in favor of border trade with China, India and Thailand.
Diversifying production away from rice has potential nutritional and economic benefits for those dependent on agriculture as a livelihood. At present, smallholder farmers are trapped in a cycle of low productivity. Farmers have limited land rights and insufficient credit opportunities resulting in low investment in quality inputs. Farmers have limited land use options resulting in low revenue from not being able to optimize the crops they produce. With limited movement, potential agriculture workers who cannot get to work and land opportunities in farms face seasonal labor shortages.
Households in urban areas, which have nearby markets, face a different set of challenges accessing nutritious foods. Proximity to nutritious food does not guarantee access, especially for low-income households who are unable to afford these foods. Myanmar’s most significant urban area Yangon had the 5th highest cost of a nutritious diet, ranking below Chin, Tanintharyi, Kachin and Shan, four states and regions with significant constraints related to physical access to markets. In Yangon 63% of households would not be able to afford the nutritious diet. Yangon is expanding rapidly and further research is needed to better understand how urbanization impacts nutrition. The primary trigger of migration to Yangon is landlessness in Delta regions. For the urban poor and recently arrived, time is a major constraint, leading to the consumption of street foods, extremely low rates of breastfeeding and poor complementary feeding practices. The urban poor also often lack safe water and sanitation and are highly vulnerable to flooding.
POLICY IMPLICATION
Emphasizing improvement of nutrition and food security, policymakers should focus on diversification of crop and livestock and access to food containing protein and micronutrient dense foods, vegetables and fruits. A focus on diversification will increase farm incomes and increase the availability and affordability of nutritious foods.
It is important to continue the development efforts to sustain the improvements in agriculture productivity and livelihoods of small-scale farmers. This could be achieved through fostering partnership with the private sector like contract farming and enabling better access by smallholder farmers to quality and affordable agricultural inputs such as seeds, fertilizers and agrochemicals, access to mechanization and extension service, access to financing etc.
REFERENCES
Headey et al. 2020. Impacts of COVID-19 on childhood malnutrition and nutrition-related mortality.International Food Policy Research Institute- IFPRI.
HLPE 2020. Report of High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition.
WFP 2019. Fill the Nutrient Gap Myanmar. World Food Program.
Ensuring Access and Sustainable Consumption of Safe and Nutrition Foods: Trends in Consumer Behavior and Food Consumption in Myanmar
ABSTRACT
Although there have been some essential transformation and improvements made in the industrial and service sectors to some extent, agriculture still remains as the backbone of the Myanmar’s economy contributing to about 22% of its national GDP in 2021. With respect to agricultural land use, the total sown area of 19.69 million ha with a cropping intensity of 150% and 5.76 million ha of cultural wasteland depicts that Myanmar still owns, however, a favorable land man ratio. However, agricultural innovations along the supply chain have not been sufficiently adopted in the agricultural sector to achieve sizable development. Low productivity, low quality of agricultural products, limited capacity, non-modernized agro-processing industry and insufficient market diversification are the major challenges to further develop Myanmar’s agricultural sector. Current dietary patterns in Myanmar are inadequate with respect to consumption of diverse nutritious food groups across all areas studied. Long-term solutions to malnutrition require transformation of the food system along food supply chains, in food environments and across consumer behavior patterns if Myanmar is to facilitate healthier diet choices. After recent increases in overall food production, it needs to diversify the food supply chain to increase the availability of nutritious food. Homestead gardens are seen as one of the strategies to increase production and consumption of fruits and vegetables. In Myanmar, according to WFP, an analysis of purchasing patterns by wealth quintile finds that households in the richest wealth quintile spend an average of US$ 1.86 (2,740 Myanmar kyat) per person per day, with the most money spent on meat, followed by oils, fish, grains, vegetables and fruits. In contrast, households in the poorest wealth quintile spend an average of US$ 0.36 (530 Myanmar kyat) per person per day (less than 20% of what the richest spend), with the most money spent on grains, followed by oils, meat, fish, vegetables and fruits. Emphasizing improvement of nutrition and food security, policymakers should focus on diversification of crops and livestock and access to food containing protein and micronutrient dense foods, vegetables and fruits. It is important to continue the development efforts to sustain the improvements in agricultural productivity and livelihoods of small-scale farmers.
Keywords: Consumer behavior, food security, smallholder farmers, nutrition
BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEM
Although there have been some essential transformation and improvement made to industrial and service sectors to some extent, agriculture still remains as the backbone of the Myanmar economy contributing to about 22% of the national GDP in 2021. Given its diverse agro-climatic zones of Myanmar, the country produces rice, beans and pulses, oilseeds, maize, rubber, sugar, palm oil, coffee and tea and a wide range of fruit and vegetables. It produces food not only crops but also meat for consumption. Livestock and fisheries are produced with increasing importance to meet the growing domestic demand. The total export earnings of the country still largely depend on agricultural commodities including pulses, rice, oilseeds, corn and other produce. However, Myanmar trades only in raw materials for most of the agricultural commodities. Recently, the Government of Myanmar (GOM) has been trending to the diversification of agriculture although it still emphasizes rice production in its policy. Along with the policy, sown area with pulses, sesame and sunflowers have been expanding. The government is likely to promote crop diversification. However, it should be noted that crop diversification will have its maximum impact only with crop intensification.
The dominance of small farmers, who owned less than 2.02 ha and characterized with low use of inputs, traditional technology, limited farm mechanization and rather resource based agriculture, could be seen as the main characteristics of Myanmar’s agriculture. The majority of farmers in Myanmar need three important things-- investments, technologies, and markets. Thus, GOM has promulgated the policy for contract farming which provides those three important needs in an all-in-one approach. However, farmers and private sector still need to adapt to this system.
With respect to agricultural land use, the total sown area of 19.69 million ha with a cropping intensity of 150% and 5.76 million ha of cultural wasteland depicts that Myanmar still owns, however, a favorable land man ratio. Similarly, current irrigated area coverage of 2.88 million ha, use of fertilizers of 3.48 million tons, use of farm machinery in terms of number of farm tractors of 36,000, and limited use of quality seeds, etc. reveal the potential areas to be improved for the primary sector which is developed with a modest growth rate of about 1.2%.
However, agricultural innovations along the supply chain have not been sufficiently adopted in the agricultural sector to achieve sizable development. Low productivity, low quality of agricultural products, limited capacity, non-modernized agro-processing industry and insufficient market diversification are major challenges for further development of the agricultural sector. Sizable development in agriculture could be achieved through transformation and value addition processes, emphasizing on appropriate quality management systems, improvement of infrastructure for effective distribution and the food processing industry.
Sustainable food systems are: productive and prosperous (to ensure the availability of sufficient food); equitable and inclusive (to ensure access for all people to food and to livelihoods within that system); empowering and respectful (to ensure agency for all people and groups, including those who are most vulnerable and marginalized to make choices and exercise voice in shaping that system); resilient (to ensure stability in the face of shocks and crises); regenerative (to ensure sustainability in all its dimensions); and healthy and nutritious (to ensure nutrient uptake and utilization) (HLPE, 2020).
According to IHLCS in 2011, with respect to moderate malnutrition, levels stood at 32% in 2010, a non-statistically significant decline from its 2005 level of 34%. There are differences between the poor and non-poor, at 35.0% and 30.6% respectively, and between rural and urban dwellers, at 33.7% and 25.5% respectively. Malnutrition among the poor has declined from its 2005 level of 37.9%, a change which is not statistically significant. Particularly high levels are found in Rakhine (53%) and Shan (S) (48%).
In terms of severe malnutrition, levels stood at 9.1% in 2010, a non-statistically significant decline from its 2005 level of 9.4%. There are differences between the poor and non-poor, at 10.2% and 8.6% respectively, and between rural and urban dwellers, at 9.7% and 6.9% respectively. Unlike moderate malnutrition, females have higher rates than males at 10.0% and 8.3% respectively. Malnutrition among the poor has declined from its 2005 level of 11.3%, a change which is not statistically significant. Particularly high levels are found in Shan (S) (18.5%) and Rakhine (16.3%).
NUTRITION TARGET AND DIETARY PATTERN OF MYANMAR
Malnutrition includes undernourishment, micronutrient deficiencies and overweight (including obesity). Malnutrition increases susceptibility to foodborne diseases, creating a vicious cycle for health, reducing productivity and compromising development. The COVID-19 pandemic is expected to increase the risk of all forms of malnutrition (Headey et al. 2020).
The Multi-Sectoral National Plan of Action on Nutrition (MS-NPAN) was developed within the context of a supportive enabling environment, leveraging high level political commitment which recognized the importance of achieving optimal nutrition in Myanmar. The MS-NPAN targets to “reduce all forms of malnutrition in mothers, children and adolescent girls” leading to better health and more productive lives that will contribute to the overall economic and social aspirations of the country. However, recent crisis in Myanmar had significant impacts on nutrition security. The agri-food sector has been severely impacted with huge implications for food and economic security, particularly for the large number of poor people living in the rural areas. On the one hand, reduced incomes and higher prices are adversely affecting consumption and food security.
Long-term solutions to malnutrition require transformation of the food system along food supply chains, in food environments and across consumer behavior patterns if Myanmar is to facilitate healthier diet choices. After recent increases in overall food production, it needs to diversify the food supply chain to increase the availability of nutritious food. Homestead gardens are one strategy to increase production and consumption of fruit and vegetables. A homestead garden could reduce the cost of a nutritious diet for a model household by 15% (WFP Fill the Nutrient Gap Myanmar, 2019). Food environments vary throughout Myanmar, depending on diversity of ethnic groups, livelihoods, seasonality, conflict and economic status. In some rural areas, home production of fish ponds can reduce the cost of a nutritious diet by up to 20%. In urban areas, lack of time and purchasing power, combined with an abundance of inexpensive processed foods, has led to an increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity alongside persistent child undernutrition. Consumption of unhealthy snacks (high in energy and low in nutrients) increases the cost of a nutritious diet by over 20% for adolescent girls and over 90% for children under the age of 2.
Consumer behavior refers to the choices made by households and individuals determining which foods to buy, prepare and eat and how foods should be allocated among household members. Consumer behavior in the food system is influenced by the food environment, which is influenced by the food supply, with feedback and interaction across the three constituent elements. In Myanmar, an analysis of purchasing patterns by wealth quintile finds that households in the richest wealth quintile spend an average of US$ 1.86 (2,740 Myanmar kyat) per person per day, with the most money spent on meat, followed by oils, fish, grains, vegetables and fruit. In contrast, households in the poorest wealth quintile spend an average of US$ 0.36 (530 Myanmar kyat) per person per day (less than 20% of what the richest spend), with the most money spent on grains, followed by oils, meat, fish, vegetables and fruits (WFP, 2019).
Current dietary patterns in Myanmar are inadequate with respect to consumption of diverse nutritious food groups across all areas studied. The Myanmar diet largely consists of white rice. Increasing the consumption of all nutritious food groups would improve upon this staple food. Regional differences were observed for each of the other food groups, besides rice, across all study areas. Recommendations to drastically increase the consumption of plant-based foods, such as vegetables, fruits and legumes, are in line with the diet recommendations for planetary health. These should be prioritized in all regions of Myanmar for improved health and nutrition of the whole population.
In many cases, food allocation, in terms of quantity and sharing of food preferred by households, is not based on nutrient-density needs but on perceived energy requirements and intra-household dynamics. It means that insufficient proportion and total amount could be allocated to household members in need of more nutrient-dense foods. Prioritization and improving the purchasing power of households to buy nutritious food are crucial for improving access to nutritious diets.
FOOD AVAILABILITY AND ACCESS TO FOODS
Myanmar has seen a remarkable improvement in per capita food production in recent decades. The percentage of the population whose caloric needs would not be met by the domestic food supply (1,800 kcal per capita per day) has decreased significantly from 63% of the population in 1990 to 11% in 2017. The expansion in food production has surpassed population growth and these figures represent a reduction from 27 million people whose caloric needs would not have been met by domestic food supply in 1990 to 5.6 million people in 2017. After experiencing significant growth in domestic food production, there is new potential for Myanmar to expand from producing enough food to diversifying production and increasing productivity.
Currently, production is dominated by rice, with 1.2 kilograms of rice per capita produced daily, followed by sugarcane with close to 500 grams per capita produced daily. In comparison, 270 grams per capita of vegetables are produced daily and less than 70 grams per capita of fruit are produced daily. Around 250 grams per capita of beans are produced daily, contributing to US$1.4 billion annual earnings from beans and pulses exported predominately to India (WFP, 2019). However, recent crisis and disruption of global commodity markets caused by the war in Ukraine has significant adverse impacts on farmers by reducing their access to agricultural inputs and creating disruptions in market infrastructure and logistics which in turn impact domestic and international food trade. Exporter continues to face a range of challenges such as increased transportation, logistics and input costs. Higher freight costs and more stringent food safety standards have reduced regular trade in favor of border trade with China, India and Thailand.
Diversifying production away from rice has potential nutritional and economic benefits for those dependent on agriculture as a livelihood. At present, smallholder farmers are trapped in a cycle of low productivity. Farmers have limited land rights and insufficient credit opportunities resulting in low investment in quality inputs. Farmers have limited land use options resulting in low revenue from not being able to optimize the crops they produce. With limited movement, potential agriculture workers who cannot get to work and land opportunities in farms face seasonal labor shortages.
Households in urban areas, which have nearby markets, face a different set of challenges accessing nutritious foods. Proximity to nutritious food does not guarantee access, especially for low-income households who are unable to afford these foods. Myanmar’s most significant urban area Yangon had the 5th highest cost of a nutritious diet, ranking below Chin, Tanintharyi, Kachin and Shan, four states and regions with significant constraints related to physical access to markets. In Yangon 63% of households would not be able to afford the nutritious diet. Yangon is expanding rapidly and further research is needed to better understand how urbanization impacts nutrition. The primary trigger of migration to Yangon is landlessness in Delta regions. For the urban poor and recently arrived, time is a major constraint, leading to the consumption of street foods, extremely low rates of breastfeeding and poor complementary feeding practices. The urban poor also often lack safe water and sanitation and are highly vulnerable to flooding.
POLICY IMPLICATION
Emphasizing improvement of nutrition and food security, policymakers should focus on diversification of crop and livestock and access to food containing protein and micronutrient dense foods, vegetables and fruits. A focus on diversification will increase farm incomes and increase the availability and affordability of nutritious foods.
It is important to continue the development efforts to sustain the improvements in agriculture productivity and livelihoods of small-scale farmers. This could be achieved through fostering partnership with the private sector like contract farming and enabling better access by smallholder farmers to quality and affordable agricultural inputs such as seeds, fertilizers and agrochemicals, access to mechanization and extension service, access to financing etc.
REFERENCES
Headey et al. 2020. Impacts of COVID-19 on childhood malnutrition and nutrition-related mortality.International Food Policy Research Institute- IFPRI.
HLPE 2020. Report of High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition.
WFP 2019. Fill the Nutrient Gap Myanmar. World Food Program.