ABSTRACT
Urban gardening's role has been widely discussed in the literature, yet research specific to Hanoi, Vietnam, remains limited. This study addresses this gap by exploring urban gardening from the vegetable consumers’ perspective. Conducted through stratified sampling, the research surveyed 120 consumers across three representative urbanization levels in Hanoi. The findings highlight urban gardening's significant contributions across economic, social, and environmental dimensions. Economically, 11.43% of urban consumers reported that self-grown vegetables comprise over 75% of their total vegetable consumption, underscoring its potential economic impact. Socially, urban gardening fosters food security, community bonding, knowledge sharing, and mutual respect among peers. Environmentally, it promotes green spaces and reduces organic waste, contributing to urban sustainability efforts. The study also identifies several challenges associated with urban gardening and proposes solutions. These include enhancing education and awareness among urban consumers about growing their own vegetables, fostering community engagement, and leveraging social media to support urban gardening initiatives. Overall, this research sheds light on the multifaceted benefits of urban gardening in Hanoi, emphasizing its potential to address economic, social, and environmental challenges. By understanding these dynamics, policymakers and urban planners can better integrate urban gardening into sustainable urban development strategies.
Keywords: Urban gardening, Self-provisioning of vegetables, Food security, Consumers’ perspective
INTRODUCTION
Urban gardening refers to growing plants and food within city settings, encompassing a range of methods such as rooftop gardens, community plots, container gardening, and vertical farms. It transforms unused urban spaces into productive areas, integrating greenery into densely built environments. This activity is increasingly popular because of its ability to provide fresh, local produce, enhance urban aesthetics, and provide recreational opportunities for city residents. Urban gardening can take many forms, from small personal gardens in backyards or balconies to larger community gardens shared by neighborhood residents. Techniques often include using raised beds, hydroponics, and aquaponics to maximize the use of limited space. Urban gardens are typically maintained by individuals, community groups, or local organizations, often with support from municipal programs. Urban gardening is becoming an essential component of sustainable urban development, offering solutions to food security, environmental degradation, and social well-being (Loan et al., 2019). These practices involve growing food within city environments using innovative methods such as rooftop gardens, vertical farms, and community gardens (Sanyé-Mengual et al., 2016; Vávra et al., 2018). Environmentally, urban agriculture helps mitigate urban heat islands, reduces food miles, and enhances biodiversity in urban settings (Sanyé-Mengual et al., 2016; Vávra et al., 2018). Socially, urban gardening promotes community engagement, provides access to fresh produce, and can improve mental and physical health (Do, 2021). It creates green spaces that foster social interactions and provide educational opportunities for sustainable food systems (Chalmin-Pui et al., 2021; Hubai et al., 2024; Pham et al., 2023). By addressing these environmental, social, and economic aspects, urban gardening can contribute significantly to the sustainability of urban ecosystems. While the roles of vegetable urban gardening have been extensively discussed in the literature, research specific to Hanoi, Vietnam, remains limited. This study aims to address this gap by exploring urban gardening from the perspective of vegetable consumers.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Urban gardening has significant environmental, social, and economic implications, contributing to sustainable urban development. Urban gardening enhances urban aesthetics and provides ecological benefits by transforming unused urban spaces into productive green areas. Green spaces reduce the urban heat island effect, improve air quality, and promote biodiversity (Sanyé-Mengual et al., 2016; Vávra et al., 2018). Moreover, urban gardening can significantly reduce organic waste through composting kitchen scraps and garden waste, contributing to a circular economy and reducing the burden on municipal waste management systems (Loan et al., 2019; Orsini et al., 2013). Furthermore, by growing food locally, urban gardening reduces the carbon footprint of transporting food over long distances, supporting climate change mitigation efforts (Sanyé-Mengual et al., 2016; Vávra et al., 2018).
Socially, urban gardening fosters community engagement and social interactions among city residents. Community gardens serve as gathering spaces where individuals can share knowledge, skills, and experiences, strengthening social ties and community cohesion. This practice also enhances food security by providing residents with a reliable source of fresh produce, particularly important in urban areas where access to healthy food can be limited. Additionally, participating in urban gardening promotes physical and mental health, as gardening provides exercise, reduces stress, and improves overall well-being. Consuming home-grown vegetables ensures access to nutritious, pesticide-free food, enhancing food safety (Orsini et al., 2013; Saediman et al., 2021; Vávra et al., 2018). Urban gardening also offers educational benefits, teaching residents about sustainable food systems and agricultural practices and serving as a platform for environmental education and awareness, particularly for children and young people (Do, 2021).
Economically, urban gardening can lead to significant cost savings for households by reducing grocery expenses. The study found that a significant proportion of urban consumers rely on self-grown vegetables for a substantial part of their vegetable consumption, highlighting its economic impact. Urban gardening can also stimulate local economies by creating job opportunities in urban farming, gardening supply businesses, and farmers' markets. It supports local food systems and reduces dependency on external food supplies (Saediman et al., 2021; Thaman, 1995). Efficient resource use is another economic benefit, as urban gardening practices like raised beds, hydroponics, and vertical gardens maximize limited urban space, making urban gardening economically viable and sustainable (Orsini et al., 2013).
Various studies have examined the roles of urban gardening in Vietnam, identifying small-scale vegetable plots as the most common form of urban agriculture. One of the key motivations for urban consumers in cities like Hanoi (Turner et al., 2024), Lao Cai (Pham & Turner, 2020), Hue (Kusakabe et al., 2015), and Ho Chi Minh city (Faltmann, 2023) to grow vegetables at home is safety. Research in Ho Chi Minh City indicates that urban food-growing efforts stem largely from a widespread crisis of confidence in the food system, with concerns about agrochemical contamination and its long-term health effects (Faltmann, 2023). Additionally, research conducted in Hue city suggests that developing urban gardening can enhance tourism, provide jobs for the poor, and support low-carbon development (Kusakabe et al., 2015). While various studies indicate the importance of urban gardening, comprehensive research that considers all economic, social, and environmental aspects is rare in Vietnamese cities.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Sample
Urbanization has limited the availability of land for urban gardening. Therefore, based on the approach of the living areas of urban residents, we selected representatives for the inner-city area, specifically Van Chuong ward (Dong Da district), Viet Hung ward (Long Bien district), as well as for the suburban area, specifically the Dang Xa urban area of Dang Xa commune (Gia Lam District). The three selected locations for the survey clearly illustrate the differences between the criteria of the inner city and suburban areas, as well as residential areas inwards/towns versus urban areas.
Through observation and discussions with local authorities, we quickly assessed the areas using several approaches, such as: 1) housing space (apartment buildings, individual houses); 2) vegetable growing locations (balconies, sidewalks, home gardens, etc.); and 3) types of technology used in vegetable growing. A large sample size is important for ensuring a high level of representativeness. However, due to limited time and budget, the study can only approach 120 households using stratified sampling, with 40 households in each of the three research areas. In addition to in-depth interviews, the observation method was employed in this research to gather more information about the situation and challenges urban consumers face in self-provisioning.
Data calculation and analysis
In this study, questions related to motivation for homegrown with a five-point Likert scale were selected as the main instrument in this study’s survey. Average scores were calculated for the Likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree =1 to Strongly Agree =5, allowing for determining composite score tendencies. The average score is calculated by multiplying the proportion of samples within each selected scale (ranging from 1 to 5) and dividing it by the total sample size. The study used descriptive and comparative analysis for data analysis, employing SPSS and Excel software for calculations. An ANOVA test was applied to understand the significant differences among the samples.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Urban consumers’ self-provisioning vegetable situation from gardening in Hanoi city
The situation of home-grown vegetables is shown in Figure 2.
According to Figure 2, 58.33% of consumers grow vegetables at home to provide for themselves.
Due to limited land for home-grown vegetables among urban residents, places for growing vegetables include balconies, rooftops, gardens, pavements, and yards. Among these, the most popular places for self-provisioning vegetables of urban residents in Hanoi city are gardens (38.57%) and rooftops (28.57%), followed by growing vegetables on balconies (14.29%), pavement (10.00%), and yards (8.57%).
Various cultivation methods for growing vegetables among urban consumers include Styrofoam boxes, hydroponic systems, hanging trusses, and traditional growing methods. The most popular method for urban residents to self-provision vegetables is the Styrofoam box, chosen by 62.86% of the total respondents. This is an easy growing method for everyone, including beginners or those growing for many years. Styrofoam containers and plastic boxes are items that can be easily found right in every household. We just need more soil, seeds, and a suitable planting space to start growing vegetables at home. This method is suitable for households with small areas, even households that still place Styrofoam containers to grow vegetables in the garden. However, the number of vegetables in the Styrofoam box can only meet a small part of daily consumption, and the vegetables grown are mainly leafy vegetables and herbs. Following this are traditional growing methods (38.57%) and hanging trellises to save space (27.14%). The aeroponics and hydroponics methods will help people save time on care and input material, but they require more investment costs than traditional soil farming methods, therefore, only 1 consumer (1.43%) in our survey practices the hydroponic system.
Roles of urban gardening from vegetable consumers’ perspective in Hanoi city
Economic aspect
According to Table 1, the common types of vegetables that are growing among urban consumers are leafy vegetables and spice vegetables. The common leafy vegetable can be shown as swam spinach, amaranth, Malabar spinach, etc.
The contribution of self-provisioning among those who practice home-grown vegetables is shown in Table 2 as follows.
Results from Table 2 show that the amounts of vegetables grown at home by urban residents to meet their consumption needs is below 50% in Hanoi. There is no difference in the ability to self-produce vegetables to meet consumer demand at 50 to 75% in 3 different urban areas (test of no difference). There is a difference at the 1% significance level in the ability to self-produce vegetables to meet consumer demand at less than 50% and over 75% in the 3 urban areas. This can be explained when people living in two urban areas with high population density (Van Chuong ward and Viet Hung ward) have limited land to grow vegetables. While Dang Xa is located in peri-urban area, farmers/consumers have a higher ability to self-supply vegetables for their consumption needs.
Moreover, Table 3 shows the average score of consumers’ agreement about the economic contribution of urban gardening. Overall, consumers agree that urban gardening could save the cost of buying vegetables (average score is 3.73), and they can cultivate vegetables at home that are seldom available in the market for personal use, thereby saving money on consumption (average score is 3.69).
Social aspect
Consistent with previous literature, most consumers in Hanoi are concerned about health and believe it will be better ensured when they can provide vegetables from home-grown gardens (average score is 4.36). Other social aspects can also be seen in Table 4, with benefits such as urban consumers being able to share their vegetables with relatives, colleagues, and neighbors. They can make friends by sharing their knowledge and skills on social networks like Facebook. They can feel respect from others after sharing their knowledge or skills related to home gardening. Additionally, they can teach their children about urban farming.
Environmental aspect
Environmental indicators also received high marks from consumers. The results in Table 5 indicate that all consumers agree that urban gardening can create a green space for their homes (average score is 4.02). They feel they are becoming more environmentally friendly (average score is 3.96). Additionally, they can reduce the amount of organic waste through home composting, which would otherwise need to be collected by local authorities (average score is 3.61).
Challenges for urban gardening in Hanoi from vegetable consumers’ perspective
Although urban gardening offers many benefits from vegetable consumers’ perspective, it also faces significant challenges that can hinder its implementation and sustainability.
In some cases, consumers mentioned that they lack the knowledge needed to grow vegetables at home, particularly in areas with limited space for cultivation. This idea is consistent with findings from previous research, such as Pham et al. (2023). Additionally, some consumers find it challenging to mitigate odors when composting their organic waste. This challenge is also noted in similar cases from research in Vietnam, such as Loan et al. (2019).
The consumers perceived that they grow vegetables to ensure safe vegetables and greening spaces for enhancing their quality of life. However, some consumers expressed concerns about the safety of their home-grown vegetables. They are unsure whether the vegetables they cultivate at home are safe for consumption. Additionally, some consumers grow vegetables in areas such as pavements near streets, where contamination from vehicles and other sources is prevalent. This concern is also highlighted in previous studies, which indicate that air pollution in settlements poses a serious hazard to the quality of home-grown vegetables. During the vegetation period, traffic is the primary source of atmospheric particulate matter (Hubai et al., 2024). Therefore, building community vegetable gardens within cities, where the city can control input sources such as water and soil quality to enhance food safety, aligns with the proposal for Hanoi's urban agriculture (Vietnam National Assembly, 2024).
Urban consumers derive pleasure and happiness from acquiring new knowledge and skills through home-grown vegetables. They also experience satisfaction from contributing to environmental sustainability as responsible citizens. However, during their practice, it is challenging for them to find reliable sources of information related to home grown vegetables. Not everyone is aware of the benefits of urban agriculture or feels like a useful citizen, as information about its advantages is not widely disseminated in their surroundings. Previous research suggests that more information is needed to understand why people become interested in gardening and whether the benefits can be extended to other, less-engaged sections of society (Chalmin-Pui et al., 2021).
Recognition and validation of their expertise further motivate them to contribute to the development of a skilled community of home vegetable cultivators. However, all sharing by urban residents on social networks is spontaneous. Furthermore, urban consumers do not receive encouragement through rewards or recognition from the community or the government for the efforts they contribute. Further studies should focus more on community or individual rewards to enhance knowledge sharing among consumers and promote urban sustainability.
Some suggestions for promoting urban gardening effectively among urban consumers in Hanoi city
Firstly, promoting education and awareness for urban consumers regarding self-provisioning vegetables entails various activities, including: (1) offering workshops, webinars, or community classes on home vegetable gardening techniques, including topics such as food safety, condition for growing safe vegetables, requirement for soil, water, and other inputs; (2) providing educational materials such as leaflets, online resources that outline the benefits and basics of self-provisioning vegetables; and (3) collaborating with local gardening experts, agricultural extension offices or community organizations to disseminate information and provide hands-on training.
Secondly, promoting community engagement in self-provisioning vegetables will be crucial. Some activities are: (1) fostering a sense of community among urban consumers by organizing gardening clubs, meet-up, or online forums where participants can share their knowledge, and skills related to urban gardening; and (2) encouraging intergenerational gardening activities by organizing family-friendly events or school partnerships that promote gardening as a fun and educational activity for children and adults alike.
Thirdly, enhancing role of social media for urban consumers to achieve self-actualization involves several strategies, including: (1) establishing dedicated social media groups or pages focused on urban gardening, where members can share their knowledge and skills related to self-provisioning vegetables; (2) encouraging interaction and collaboration among members by asking questions, sharing success stories, and offering support and advice to fellow gardeners; (3) fostering a positive and inclusive atmosphere where individuals feel comfortable sharing their knowledge and experience without fear of judgment; and (4) recognizing and celebrating achievements of urban consumers who have successfully pursued self-actualization through vegetable cultivation, highlighting their accomplishments, sharing their stories, and providing recognition and appreciation for their efforts to inspire others in the community.
CONCLUSION
Urban gardening emerges as a multifaceted solution to various urban challenges, intertwining economic, social and environmental benefits into a cohesive framework for sustainable urban development. This study has drawn the roles of urban gardening from vegetable consumers’ perspective in Hanoi city, Vietnam. The findings underscore the multifaceted benefits of urban gardening, highlighting its substantial contributions across economic, social, and environmental dimensions. From an economic perspective, urban gardening offers significant advantages to city dwellers. The study reveals that 11.43% of urban consumers report that homegrown vegetables constitute more than 75% of their total vegetable consumption. This impressive statistic suggests that urban gardening has the potential to make a considerable economic impact by reducing grocery bills and promoting self-sufficiency. Socially, urban gardening plays a pivotal role in enhancing food security and fostering a sense of community. By providing a reliable source of fresh produce, urban gardens help ensure that more individuals have access to nutritious food. Additionally, urban gardens can become hubs of knowledge sharing, where experienced gardeners pass on their expertise to novices, encouraging lifelong learning and skill development. From an environmental standpoint, urban gardening offers several significant benefits. It promotes the creation of green spaces within urban environments, which are often characterized by concrete and asphalt.
Despite the benefits of urban gardening, the study identifies several challenges. A primary issue is the lack of education and awareness among urban consumers about growing their own vegetables, especially in limited spaces like balconies and rooftops. The study suggests enhancing educational efforts through workshops, online tutorials, and community gardening classes to teach the basics of gardening. Another challenge is fostering community engagement, which requires coordinated efforts to establish and maintain gardens. Creating community gardening programs supported by local governments, non-profits, and community groups can encourage diverse participation and provide necessary resources. Additionally, leveraging social media can raise awareness, share information, and build a community of enthusiasts. Social media platforms can promote events and facilitate knowledge exchange, fostering a sense of ownership and sustained involvement. Future studies should explore the economic viability of urban farming initiatives in Hanoi and investigate the long-term impact of urban gardening programs on food security and community well-being. The preferences of urban consumers regarding vegetable gardening should also receive more attention in future research.
REFERENCES
Chalmin-Pui, L. S., Griffiths, A., Roe, J., Heaton, T., & Cameron, R. (2021). Why garden? – Attitudes and the perceived health benefits of home gardening. Cities, 112(August 2020), 103118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2021.103118
Do, K. C. (2021). Agricultural Economics. Vietnam Agricultural University Publishing house.
Faltmann, N. K. (2023). Urban gardening in Ho Chi Minh City: class, food safety concerns, and the crisis of confidence in farming. Food, Culture and Society, 26(4), 927–944. https://doi.org/10.1080/15528014.2022.2142753
Hubai, K., Kov, N., & Eck-varanka, B. (2024). Urban Gardening — How Safe Is It ?
Kusakabe, K., Shrestha, P., Kumar, S., & Nguyen, K. L. (2015). Pathways to sustainable urban tourism: Garden houses in Hue, Vietnam. International Journal of Sustainable Society, 7(3), 286–303. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSSOC.2015.071298
Loan, L. T. T., Takahashi, Y., Nomura, H., & Yabe, M. (2019). Modeling home composting behavior toward sustainable municipal organic waste management at the source in developing countries. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 140(August 2018), 65–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.08.016
Orsini, F., Kahane, R., Nono-Womdim, R., & Gianquinto, G. (2013). Urban agriculture in the developing world: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 33(4), 695–720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-013-0143-z
Pham, T. T. H., Lynch, M., & Turner, S. (2023). Creative counter-discourses to the “green city” narrative: practices of small-scale urban agriculture in Hanoi, Vietnam. Local Environment, 28(2), 169–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2022.2162028
Pham, T. T. H., & Turner, S. (2020). ‘If I want safe food I have to grow it myself’: Patterns and motivations of urban agriculture in a small city in Vietnam’s northern borderlands. Land Use Policy, 96(March), 104681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104681
Saediman, H., Gafaruddin, A., Hidrawati, H., Salam, I., Ulimaz, A., Sarimustaqiyma Rianse, I., Sarinah, S., & Adha Taridala, S. A. (2021). The contribution of home food gardening program to household food security in indonesia: A review. WSEAS Transactions on Environment and Development, 17(i), 795–809. https://doi.org/10.37394/232015.2021.17.75
Sanyé-Mengual, E., Anguelovski, I., Oliver-Solà, J., Montero, J. I., & Rieradevall, J. (2016). Resolving differing stakeholder perceptions of urban rooftop farming in Mediterranean cities: promoting food production as a driver for innovative forms of urban agriculture. Agriculture and Human Values, 33(1), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-015-9594-y
Thaman, R. R. (1995). Urban food gardening in the Pacific Islands: A basis for food security in rapidly urbanising small-island states. Habitat International, 19(2), 209–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-3975(94)00067-C
Turner, S., Pham, T. T. H., Ngô, H. T., & Zuberec, C. (2024). Rooftop gardening complexities in the Global South: Motivations, practices, and politics. Geographical Research, 62(2), 248–262. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-5871.12631
Vávra, J., Daněk, P., & Jehlička, P. (2018). What is the contribution of food self-provisioning towards environmental sustainability? A case study of active gardeners. Journal of Cleaner Production, 185, 1015–1023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.261
Vietnam National Assembly (2024). Capital Law.
Vegetable Urban Gardening: Insights from Consumers’ Perspectives in Hanoi, Vietnam
ABSTRACT
Urban gardening's role has been widely discussed in the literature, yet research specific to Hanoi, Vietnam, remains limited. This study addresses this gap by exploring urban gardening from the vegetable consumers’ perspective. Conducted through stratified sampling, the research surveyed 120 consumers across three representative urbanization levels in Hanoi. The findings highlight urban gardening's significant contributions across economic, social, and environmental dimensions. Economically, 11.43% of urban consumers reported that self-grown vegetables comprise over 75% of their total vegetable consumption, underscoring its potential economic impact. Socially, urban gardening fosters food security, community bonding, knowledge sharing, and mutual respect among peers. Environmentally, it promotes green spaces and reduces organic waste, contributing to urban sustainability efforts. The study also identifies several challenges associated with urban gardening and proposes solutions. These include enhancing education and awareness among urban consumers about growing their own vegetables, fostering community engagement, and leveraging social media to support urban gardening initiatives. Overall, this research sheds light on the multifaceted benefits of urban gardening in Hanoi, emphasizing its potential to address economic, social, and environmental challenges. By understanding these dynamics, policymakers and urban planners can better integrate urban gardening into sustainable urban development strategies.
Keywords: Urban gardening, Self-provisioning of vegetables, Food security, Consumers’ perspective
INTRODUCTION
Urban gardening refers to growing plants and food within city settings, encompassing a range of methods such as rooftop gardens, community plots, container gardening, and vertical farms. It transforms unused urban spaces into productive areas, integrating greenery into densely built environments. This activity is increasingly popular because of its ability to provide fresh, local produce, enhance urban aesthetics, and provide recreational opportunities for city residents. Urban gardening can take many forms, from small personal gardens in backyards or balconies to larger community gardens shared by neighborhood residents. Techniques often include using raised beds, hydroponics, and aquaponics to maximize the use of limited space. Urban gardens are typically maintained by individuals, community groups, or local organizations, often with support from municipal programs. Urban gardening is becoming an essential component of sustainable urban development, offering solutions to food security, environmental degradation, and social well-being (Loan et al., 2019). These practices involve growing food within city environments using innovative methods such as rooftop gardens, vertical farms, and community gardens (Sanyé-Mengual et al., 2016; Vávra et al., 2018). Environmentally, urban agriculture helps mitigate urban heat islands, reduces food miles, and enhances biodiversity in urban settings (Sanyé-Mengual et al., 2016; Vávra et al., 2018). Socially, urban gardening promotes community engagement, provides access to fresh produce, and can improve mental and physical health (Do, 2021). It creates green spaces that foster social interactions and provide educational opportunities for sustainable food systems (Chalmin-Pui et al., 2021; Hubai et al., 2024; Pham et al., 2023). By addressing these environmental, social, and economic aspects, urban gardening can contribute significantly to the sustainability of urban ecosystems. While the roles of vegetable urban gardening have been extensively discussed in the literature, research specific to Hanoi, Vietnam, remains limited. This study aims to address this gap by exploring urban gardening from the perspective of vegetable consumers.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Urban gardening has significant environmental, social, and economic implications, contributing to sustainable urban development. Urban gardening enhances urban aesthetics and provides ecological benefits by transforming unused urban spaces into productive green areas. Green spaces reduce the urban heat island effect, improve air quality, and promote biodiversity (Sanyé-Mengual et al., 2016; Vávra et al., 2018). Moreover, urban gardening can significantly reduce organic waste through composting kitchen scraps and garden waste, contributing to a circular economy and reducing the burden on municipal waste management systems (Loan et al., 2019; Orsini et al., 2013). Furthermore, by growing food locally, urban gardening reduces the carbon footprint of transporting food over long distances, supporting climate change mitigation efforts (Sanyé-Mengual et al., 2016; Vávra et al., 2018).
Socially, urban gardening fosters community engagement and social interactions among city residents. Community gardens serve as gathering spaces where individuals can share knowledge, skills, and experiences, strengthening social ties and community cohesion. This practice also enhances food security by providing residents with a reliable source of fresh produce, particularly important in urban areas where access to healthy food can be limited. Additionally, participating in urban gardening promotes physical and mental health, as gardening provides exercise, reduces stress, and improves overall well-being. Consuming home-grown vegetables ensures access to nutritious, pesticide-free food, enhancing food safety (Orsini et al., 2013; Saediman et al., 2021; Vávra et al., 2018). Urban gardening also offers educational benefits, teaching residents about sustainable food systems and agricultural practices and serving as a platform for environmental education and awareness, particularly for children and young people (Do, 2021).
Economically, urban gardening can lead to significant cost savings for households by reducing grocery expenses. The study found that a significant proportion of urban consumers rely on self-grown vegetables for a substantial part of their vegetable consumption, highlighting its economic impact. Urban gardening can also stimulate local economies by creating job opportunities in urban farming, gardening supply businesses, and farmers' markets. It supports local food systems and reduces dependency on external food supplies (Saediman et al., 2021; Thaman, 1995). Efficient resource use is another economic benefit, as urban gardening practices like raised beds, hydroponics, and vertical gardens maximize limited urban space, making urban gardening economically viable and sustainable (Orsini et al., 2013).
Various studies have examined the roles of urban gardening in Vietnam, identifying small-scale vegetable plots as the most common form of urban agriculture. One of the key motivations for urban consumers in cities like Hanoi (Turner et al., 2024), Lao Cai (Pham & Turner, 2020), Hue (Kusakabe et al., 2015), and Ho Chi Minh city (Faltmann, 2023) to grow vegetables at home is safety. Research in Ho Chi Minh City indicates that urban food-growing efforts stem largely from a widespread crisis of confidence in the food system, with concerns about agrochemical contamination and its long-term health effects (Faltmann, 2023). Additionally, research conducted in Hue city suggests that developing urban gardening can enhance tourism, provide jobs for the poor, and support low-carbon development (Kusakabe et al., 2015). While various studies indicate the importance of urban gardening, comprehensive research that considers all economic, social, and environmental aspects is rare in Vietnamese cities.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Sample
Urbanization has limited the availability of land for urban gardening. Therefore, based on the approach of the living areas of urban residents, we selected representatives for the inner-city area, specifically Van Chuong ward (Dong Da district), Viet Hung ward (Long Bien district), as well as for the suburban area, specifically the Dang Xa urban area of Dang Xa commune (Gia Lam District). The three selected locations for the survey clearly illustrate the differences between the criteria of the inner city and suburban areas, as well as residential areas inwards/towns versus urban areas.
Through observation and discussions with local authorities, we quickly assessed the areas using several approaches, such as: 1) housing space (apartment buildings, individual houses); 2) vegetable growing locations (balconies, sidewalks, home gardens, etc.); and 3) types of technology used in vegetable growing. A large sample size is important for ensuring a high level of representativeness. However, due to limited time and budget, the study can only approach 120 households using stratified sampling, with 40 households in each of the three research areas. In addition to in-depth interviews, the observation method was employed in this research to gather more information about the situation and challenges urban consumers face in self-provisioning.
Data calculation and analysis
In this study, questions related to motivation for homegrown with a five-point Likert scale were selected as the main instrument in this study’s survey. Average scores were calculated for the Likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree =1 to Strongly Agree =5, allowing for determining composite score tendencies. The average score is calculated by multiplying the proportion of samples within each selected scale (ranging from 1 to 5) and dividing it by the total sample size. The study used descriptive and comparative analysis for data analysis, employing SPSS and Excel software for calculations. An ANOVA test was applied to understand the significant differences among the samples.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Urban consumers’ self-provisioning vegetable situation from gardening in Hanoi city
The situation of home-grown vegetables is shown in Figure 2.
According to Figure 2, 58.33% of consumers grow vegetables at home to provide for themselves.
Due to limited land for home-grown vegetables among urban residents, places for growing vegetables include balconies, rooftops, gardens, pavements, and yards. Among these, the most popular places for self-provisioning vegetables of urban residents in Hanoi city are gardens (38.57%) and rooftops (28.57%), followed by growing vegetables on balconies (14.29%), pavement (10.00%), and yards (8.57%).
Various cultivation methods for growing vegetables among urban consumers include Styrofoam boxes, hydroponic systems, hanging trusses, and traditional growing methods. The most popular method for urban residents to self-provision vegetables is the Styrofoam box, chosen by 62.86% of the total respondents. This is an easy growing method for everyone, including beginners or those growing for many years. Styrofoam containers and plastic boxes are items that can be easily found right in every household. We just need more soil, seeds, and a suitable planting space to start growing vegetables at home. This method is suitable for households with small areas, even households that still place Styrofoam containers to grow vegetables in the garden. However, the number of vegetables in the Styrofoam box can only meet a small part of daily consumption, and the vegetables grown are mainly leafy vegetables and herbs. Following this are traditional growing methods (38.57%) and hanging trellises to save space (27.14%). The aeroponics and hydroponics methods will help people save time on care and input material, but they require more investment costs than traditional soil farming methods, therefore, only 1 consumer (1.43%) in our survey practices the hydroponic system.
Roles of urban gardening from vegetable consumers’ perspective in Hanoi city
Economic aspect
According to Table 1, the common types of vegetables that are growing among urban consumers are leafy vegetables and spice vegetables. The common leafy vegetable can be shown as swam spinach, amaranth, Malabar spinach, etc.
The contribution of self-provisioning among those who practice home-grown vegetables is shown in Table 2 as follows.
Results from Table 2 show that the amounts of vegetables grown at home by urban residents to meet their consumption needs is below 50% in Hanoi. There is no difference in the ability to self-produce vegetables to meet consumer demand at 50 to 75% in 3 different urban areas (test of no difference). There is a difference at the 1% significance level in the ability to self-produce vegetables to meet consumer demand at less than 50% and over 75% in the 3 urban areas. This can be explained when people living in two urban areas with high population density (Van Chuong ward and Viet Hung ward) have limited land to grow vegetables. While Dang Xa is located in peri-urban area, farmers/consumers have a higher ability to self-supply vegetables for their consumption needs.
Moreover, Table 3 shows the average score of consumers’ agreement about the economic contribution of urban gardening. Overall, consumers agree that urban gardening could save the cost of buying vegetables (average score is 3.73), and they can cultivate vegetables at home that are seldom available in the market for personal use, thereby saving money on consumption (average score is 3.69).
Social aspect
Consistent with previous literature, most consumers in Hanoi are concerned about health and believe it will be better ensured when they can provide vegetables from home-grown gardens (average score is 4.36). Other social aspects can also be seen in Table 4, with benefits such as urban consumers being able to share their vegetables with relatives, colleagues, and neighbors. They can make friends by sharing their knowledge and skills on social networks like Facebook. They can feel respect from others after sharing their knowledge or skills related to home gardening. Additionally, they can teach their children about urban farming.
Environmental aspect
Environmental indicators also received high marks from consumers. The results in Table 5 indicate that all consumers agree that urban gardening can create a green space for their homes (average score is 4.02). They feel they are becoming more environmentally friendly (average score is 3.96). Additionally, they can reduce the amount of organic waste through home composting, which would otherwise need to be collected by local authorities (average score is 3.61).
Challenges for urban gardening in Hanoi from vegetable consumers’ perspective
Although urban gardening offers many benefits from vegetable consumers’ perspective, it also faces significant challenges that can hinder its implementation and sustainability.
In some cases, consumers mentioned that they lack the knowledge needed to grow vegetables at home, particularly in areas with limited space for cultivation. This idea is consistent with findings from previous research, such as Pham et al. (2023). Additionally, some consumers find it challenging to mitigate odors when composting their organic waste. This challenge is also noted in similar cases from research in Vietnam, such as Loan et al. (2019).
The consumers perceived that they grow vegetables to ensure safe vegetables and greening spaces for enhancing their quality of life. However, some consumers expressed concerns about the safety of their home-grown vegetables. They are unsure whether the vegetables they cultivate at home are safe for consumption. Additionally, some consumers grow vegetables in areas such as pavements near streets, where contamination from vehicles and other sources is prevalent. This concern is also highlighted in previous studies, which indicate that air pollution in settlements poses a serious hazard to the quality of home-grown vegetables. During the vegetation period, traffic is the primary source of atmospheric particulate matter (Hubai et al., 2024). Therefore, building community vegetable gardens within cities, where the city can control input sources such as water and soil quality to enhance food safety, aligns with the proposal for Hanoi's urban agriculture (Vietnam National Assembly, 2024).
Urban consumers derive pleasure and happiness from acquiring new knowledge and skills through home-grown vegetables. They also experience satisfaction from contributing to environmental sustainability as responsible citizens. However, during their practice, it is challenging for them to find reliable sources of information related to home grown vegetables. Not everyone is aware of the benefits of urban agriculture or feels like a useful citizen, as information about its advantages is not widely disseminated in their surroundings. Previous research suggests that more information is needed to understand why people become interested in gardening and whether the benefits can be extended to other, less-engaged sections of society (Chalmin-Pui et al., 2021).
Recognition and validation of their expertise further motivate them to contribute to the development of a skilled community of home vegetable cultivators. However, all sharing by urban residents on social networks is spontaneous. Furthermore, urban consumers do not receive encouragement through rewards or recognition from the community or the government for the efforts they contribute. Further studies should focus more on community or individual rewards to enhance knowledge sharing among consumers and promote urban sustainability.
Some suggestions for promoting urban gardening effectively among urban consumers in Hanoi city
Firstly, promoting education and awareness for urban consumers regarding self-provisioning vegetables entails various activities, including: (1) offering workshops, webinars, or community classes on home vegetable gardening techniques, including topics such as food safety, condition for growing safe vegetables, requirement for soil, water, and other inputs; (2) providing educational materials such as leaflets, online resources that outline the benefits and basics of self-provisioning vegetables; and (3) collaborating with local gardening experts, agricultural extension offices or community organizations to disseminate information and provide hands-on training.
Secondly, promoting community engagement in self-provisioning vegetables will be crucial. Some activities are: (1) fostering a sense of community among urban consumers by organizing gardening clubs, meet-up, or online forums where participants can share their knowledge, and skills related to urban gardening; and (2) encouraging intergenerational gardening activities by organizing family-friendly events or school partnerships that promote gardening as a fun and educational activity for children and adults alike.
Thirdly, enhancing role of social media for urban consumers to achieve self-actualization involves several strategies, including: (1) establishing dedicated social media groups or pages focused on urban gardening, where members can share their knowledge and skills related to self-provisioning vegetables; (2) encouraging interaction and collaboration among members by asking questions, sharing success stories, and offering support and advice to fellow gardeners; (3) fostering a positive and inclusive atmosphere where individuals feel comfortable sharing their knowledge and experience without fear of judgment; and (4) recognizing and celebrating achievements of urban consumers who have successfully pursued self-actualization through vegetable cultivation, highlighting their accomplishments, sharing their stories, and providing recognition and appreciation for their efforts to inspire others in the community.
CONCLUSION
Urban gardening emerges as a multifaceted solution to various urban challenges, intertwining economic, social and environmental benefits into a cohesive framework for sustainable urban development. This study has drawn the roles of urban gardening from vegetable consumers’ perspective in Hanoi city, Vietnam. The findings underscore the multifaceted benefits of urban gardening, highlighting its substantial contributions across economic, social, and environmental dimensions. From an economic perspective, urban gardening offers significant advantages to city dwellers. The study reveals that 11.43% of urban consumers report that homegrown vegetables constitute more than 75% of their total vegetable consumption. This impressive statistic suggests that urban gardening has the potential to make a considerable economic impact by reducing grocery bills and promoting self-sufficiency. Socially, urban gardening plays a pivotal role in enhancing food security and fostering a sense of community. By providing a reliable source of fresh produce, urban gardens help ensure that more individuals have access to nutritious food. Additionally, urban gardens can become hubs of knowledge sharing, where experienced gardeners pass on their expertise to novices, encouraging lifelong learning and skill development. From an environmental standpoint, urban gardening offers several significant benefits. It promotes the creation of green spaces within urban environments, which are often characterized by concrete and asphalt.
Despite the benefits of urban gardening, the study identifies several challenges. A primary issue is the lack of education and awareness among urban consumers about growing their own vegetables, especially in limited spaces like balconies and rooftops. The study suggests enhancing educational efforts through workshops, online tutorials, and community gardening classes to teach the basics of gardening. Another challenge is fostering community engagement, which requires coordinated efforts to establish and maintain gardens. Creating community gardening programs supported by local governments, non-profits, and community groups can encourage diverse participation and provide necessary resources. Additionally, leveraging social media can raise awareness, share information, and build a community of enthusiasts. Social media platforms can promote events and facilitate knowledge exchange, fostering a sense of ownership and sustained involvement. Future studies should explore the economic viability of urban farming initiatives in Hanoi and investigate the long-term impact of urban gardening programs on food security and community well-being. The preferences of urban consumers regarding vegetable gardening should also receive more attention in future research.
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