ABSTRACT
This study examines community knowledge and perceptions of marine conservation in relation to the proposed establishment of the Manlot Protected Area (MPA) on Magalumbi Island, Batad, Iloilo. A multi-method approach was applied, combining habitat assessments, biodiversity surveys, geospatial mapping, and stakeholder consultations. Semi-structured interviews with local fishers, policymakers, and environmental groups highlighted the community’s heavy reliance on marine resources and concerns about the declining Manlot population, driven by habitat degradation and overharvesting. While some residents initially expressed scepticism toward conservation measures, many acknowledged the potential benefits of an MPA, particularly in restoring fish stocks and developing eco-tourism as an alternative livelihood. Environmental assessments indicated favorable conditions for Manlot rehabilitation, including adequate coral cover and suitable water quality. However, challenges remain, including illegal fishing practices, poor waste management, and weak enforcement of existing regulations. To address these issues, a zoning plan was proposed that designates core conservation zones, buffer areas, and regulated-use zones to balance ecological protection with sustainable resource utilization. The study further highlights the importance of community participation through education campaigns and monitoring initiatives. Overall, it emphasizes an integrated framework that links biodiversity protection, environmental education, and sustainable livelihoods to support effective marine conservation.
Keywords: Biodiversity protection, community perceptions, eco-tourism, habitat assessment, Magalumbi Island, Manlot Protected Area, marine conservation, marine resource management, stakeholder engagement, sustainable livelihoods.
INTRODUCTION
Tridacna gigas, the largest extant bivalve, is a reef-associated keystone species that supports coral reef functioning through filter feeding, nutrient cycling, habitat provision, and calcium carbonate deposition (Angulo-Valdes &Hatcher, 2010; Di Franco et al., 2020). In the Philippines, population of T. gigas have declined by more than 90% since the late twentieth century due to overexploitation, habitat degradation, and illegal shell trade, leading to its current classification as Critically Endangered (Paz et al., 2011; Nocito et al., 2022). Despite legal protection and hatchery based stocking initiatives, recovery remains limited by low natural recruitment and persistent anthropogenic pressures, highlighting the need for effective spatial conservation measures (Thornton & Scheer, 2012; Nikitine et al., 2028). The designation of Manlot within the Marine Protected Area of the Municipality of Batad, Iloilo is therefore justified by its suitable reef habitats, integration within the ridge-to-reef coastal management, and strong potential for community-based co-management, all of which are critical for improving governance effectiveness and long-term conservation outcomes (Young et al.; & Post, 2016; Pegorelli et al., 2024).
The establishment and effective management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) rely heavily on the awareness, perceptions, and participation of local communities. For conservation initiatives to succeed, it is crucial to understand the ecological knowledge, cultural practices, and livelihood realities of those who directly interact with marine ecosystems. In the coastal community of Magalumbi Island, Batad, Iloilo, the conservation of Tridacna gigas (locally known as Manlot) and its associated habitats requires not only ecological assessments but also strong stakeholder engagement. Fisher folk, barangay leaders, and coastal residents remain at the forefront of both resource use and conservation, making their involvement indispensable (Jimu, et al., 2025).
This study investigates local knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding marine conservation and resource management within the proposed Manlot Protected Area. It further explores the ecological conditions, threats, and opportunities that determine the feasibility of clam rehabilitation and sustainable habitat protection. By integrating scientific analysis with participatory approaches, the research seeks to design a community-driven conservation framework that balances biodiversity protection with socio-economic needs.
The Manlot Protected Area is envisioned as both a sanctuary for marine biodiversity and a catalyst for sustainable livelihoods through ecotourism and responsible resource management (Floren, 2003; Isalary, et al., 2021; Wink, 2025). In doing so, the study positions Magalumbi Island as a model for community-based conservation in the Philippines, demonstrating how science, governance, and local stewardship can converge to secure long-term ecological resilience and human well-being.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
This study employed a qualitative-descriptive research design complemented by participatory and ecological assessment methods. The choice of design was rooted in the dual nature of the research problem: understanding both the socio-cultural dimensions of marine conservation and the scientific requirements for establishing a viable Marine Protected Area (MPA) in Magalumbi Island.
The qualitative component focused on exploring the lived experiences, ecological knowledge, and perceptions of local stakeholders who directly interact with the marine environment. Using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), and participatory observations, the study sought to capture narratives that reveal how community members perceive conservation initiatives, how traditional fishing practices shape resource management, and the challenges they face in protecting marine biodiversity. This approach provided rich, contextual insights that go beyond what quantitative data alone can reveal.
Simultaneously, the study integrated a scientific-ecological assessment, which included water quality analysis, biodiversity surveys, and geospatial mapping. These methods were employed to assess the environmental suitability of Magalumbi Island for the rehabilitation of Tridacna gigas (Manlot), and to identify threats and opportunities for long-term marine resource management. The inclusion of these methods ensured that conservation planning was grounded not only in community perspectives but also in empirical ecological data.
The research design was further guided by principles of participatory action research (PAR), recognizing that sustainable conservation requires active involvement of local communities in both data generation and decision-making. Local fisherfolk, barangay leaders, and environmental organizations were engaged throughout the process—from preliminary site assessments to the development of zoning plans—to promote ownership and ensure that conservation strategies were culturally sensitive, socially accepted, and practically feasible (Erena, et al., 2021; Borzee, 2023).
By combining qualitative inquiry, ecological evaluation, and participatory engagement, the study adopted a holistic and interdisciplinary approach. This design not only enabled triangulation of data sources, thereby enhancing the validity and reliability of the findings, but also aligned with the overarching objective of creating a community-driven conservation framework. In essence, the research design positioned the proposed Manlot Protected Area as both a scientific undertaking and a social process in which ecological sustainability and community empowerment are mutually reinforcing goals.
Study site
The research was conducted on Magalumbi Island, a coastal barangay in the municipality of Batad, Iloilo, located in the north-eastern part of Panay Island, Philippines. The island is located at approximately 11° 21′ N latitude and 123° 10′ E longitude, and is surrounded by the Visayan Sea, one of the country’s most biologically productive marine ecosystems. With a total land area of about 48 hectares, Magalumbi is home to a small yet highly dependent fishing community whose livelihood and cultural identity are closely tied to the sea. The island is ecologically significant as it harbors diverse marine habitats, including coral reefs, seagrass beds, and sandy substrates, which provide breeding and feeding grounds for various fish species, invertebrates, and marine megafauna. Notably, Magalumbi serves as a natural habitat for the endangered giant clam Tridacna gigas (locally known as Manlot), a species recognized as both ecologically vital and culturally symbolic. These clams play a key role in maintaining reef health by filtering water, enhancing nutrient cycling, and providing shelter for reef-associated organisms.
Despite its ecological importance, Magalumbi faces mounting pressures from overfishing, destructive fishing methods (e.g., cyanide and blast fishing), unregulated harvesting of giant clams, and inadequate waste management. Additionally, the community’s reliance on marine resources for daily sustenance and income creates both opportunities and challenges for conservation. While local fishers recognize the decline of marine resources, economic necessity often drives unsustainable practices. Socio-culturally, the island is characterized by a tightly knit community with strong traditions of collective fishing, shared resource use, and indigenous ecological knowledge. Barangay officials, fisherfolk associations, and women’s groups play central roles in community governance and decision-making.
These dynamics make Magalumbi an ideal site for examining how local knowledge, perceptions, and practices influence the feasibility of establishing a community-managed Marine Protected Area (MPA). From a conservation-planning perspective, Magalumbi is strategically positioned to serve as a pilot site for biodiversity protection and ecotourism development in northern Iloilo. Its proximity to other marine-rich areas in the Visayan Sea enhances its potential role as part of a broader network of MPAs in the region. Moreover, the presence of schools, local organizations, and engaged fisherfolk provides a strong foundation for integrating environmental education and participatory governance into conservation initiatives. Magalumbi Island offers both ecological richness and pressing conservation challenges, making it a critical site for exploring the intersections of biodiversity protection, community participation, and sustainable livelihoods.
Participants and sampling
The participants in this study were drawn from key stakeholder groups directly involved in marine resource use and conservation on Magalumbi Island, Batad, Iloilo. They included fisherfolk, barangay officials, coastal residents, and representatives of environmental organizations. A total of twenty participants were purposively selected to ensure diverse representation of perspectives across ecological knowledge, governance, and livelihood practices. Among them, fisherfolk constituted the largest group, as they hold extensive traditional ecological knowledge on fishing grounds, spawning seasons, and observed shifts in marine biodiversity. Barangay officials and policymakers were also involved, given their roles in local governance, ordinance enforcement, and decision-making processes critical to establishing a Marine Protected Area (MPA). In addition, coastal residents who are not directly engaged in fishing, such as women, youth, and small-scale entrepreneurs, were included to capture broader community views on conservation and alternative livelihood opportunities. Finally, representatives from environmental organizations and advocacy groups were invited to contribute their scientific expertise and conservation experience.
The study employed purposive sampling, in which participants were deliberately selected for their relevance to marine conservation and resource management, and maximum variation sampling to ensure diversity in age, gender, and livelihood backgrounds. This approach allowed the research to capture a broad spectrum of lived experiences and community insights. Recruitment was facilitated through barangay meetings, fisherfolk associations, and local networks, with voluntary participation emphasized at all stages. Ethical principles were strictly observed: participants were fully informed about the study’s objectives, their consent was secured, and confidentiality was maintained throughout. By engaging multiple stakeholder groups and prioritizing inclusivity, the study ensured that the findings reflected both the ecological realities and socio-economic conditions of Magalumbi Island, thus providing a strong foundation for the development of a community-driven Manlot Protected Area.
Data collection methods
To obtain a comprehensive understanding of community knowledge, perceptions, and ecological conditions in Magalumbi Island, the study employed multiple qualitative and ecological data collection techniques. Primary data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with fisherfolk, barangay officials, policymakers, and representatives of environmental organizations. These interviews, guided by open-ended questions, enabled participants to share personal experiences, traditional ecological knowledge, and perceptions of marine conservation in their own words, while giving the researcher flexibility to probe emerging themes. To complement these individual accounts, focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with fisherfolk associations and community leaders to generate dialogue, compare perspectives, and capture collective insights on resource use, conservation challenges, and livelihood opportunities.
Participatory observations were conducted to document community interactions with the marine environment, including daily fishing practices, waste management behaviors, and compliance with local ordinances. This approach provided firsthand insights into lived practices that might not have been fully articulated in interviews or group discussions. To strengthen ecological validity, habitat assessments and biodiversity surveys were conducted, focusing on coral cover, seagrass beds, and water quality parameters relevant to the survival of Tridacna gigas (Manlot). These scientific assessments were supplemented by geospatial mapping, which identified critical habitats, fishing grounds, and potential conservation zones.
Document analysis was undertaken to review existing barangay ordinances, municipal policies, and previous reports on marine biodiversity and resource management in the area. This triangulation of qualitative, ecological, and documentary data enriched the study by ensuring multiple perspectives were considered and by cross-verifying community narratives with scientific and policy records. Ethical protocols were strictly followed throughout, with participants providing informed consent and assurances of confidentiality. Together, these methods provided a holistic and credible account of the ecological and socio-cultural dynamics influencing the proposed Manlot Protected Area.
Data analysis
Narrative analysis was used to examine interview and FGD transcripts, identifying recurring themes related to community perceptions, ecological knowledge, and conservation practices. Triangulation was applied by cross-referencing interview data with observational notes, environmental assessments, and document reviews, thereby ensuring credibility and accuracy. Ecological data were analyzed descriptively and spatially to inform habitat suitability and zoning recommendations.
Ethical considerations
The study adhered to ethical research standards, prioritizing transparency, voluntary participation, and respect for indigenous knowledge. Participants' confidentiality and anonymity were maintained, and findings were reported with sensitivity to local cultural and socioeconomic contexts. The aim of the methodology section is to describe how the research was conducted as well as to enhance the credibility of the research. In case the research is quantitative, the methodology should present the way numerical data was collected and how mathematical analyses are conducted to observe, analyze, assess, and test experiments and hypotheses. Qualitative research involves the collection and analysis of non-numeric data (e.g., text, video, or audio) with the aim of explaining concepts, opinions, perspectives, or personal experiences.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The findings of this study, interpreted through narrative analysis, provide a holistic perspective on the ecological, socio-economic, and cultural dynamics shaping marine conservation in Magalumbi Island. Anchored in the lived experiences of fisherfolk, policymakers, and conservation advocates, the results highlight both the potential and the challenges associated with establishing the Manlot Protected Area (MPA). Narratives revealed the ecological conditions of the island, particularly water quality, biodiversity, and habitat suitability for Tridacna gigas (Manlot), while also uncovering community perceptions of conservation, enforcement challenges, and waste management practices.
Community accounts consistently emphasized the strong link between resource conservation and local well-being. Many fishers recognized that a well-managed MPA could restore declining fish stocks, improve food security, and create ecotourism opportunities. Elders drew attention to the value of traditional ecological knowledge, recalling past practices that supported sustainability, while younger participants expressed aspirations for livelihood diversification through eco-tourism and conservation-related work. These intergenerational perspectives underscored the potential of the Manlot Sanctuary to serve as both an ecological safeguard and a socio-economic catalyst. At the same time, concerns over weak enforcement, illegal fishing, and resource limitations emerged as recurring themes. Stakeholders emphasized the importance of stricter policy enforcement, ongoing monitoring, and community education as essential measures to sustain conservation initiatives. These insights align with prior research highlighting that participatory governance, local compliance, and policy integration are critical to MPA effectiveness (Di Franco, et. Al, 2020).
Narratives also documented existing best practices such as waste segregation, coral restoration, and sustainable fishing that demonstrated how community-led initiatives can directly enhance ecosystem resilience when properly supported by local governance and external partnerships. The study further revealed the transformative role of education and awareness. Teachers, youth groups, and researchers emphasized that embedding marine conservation into school curricula and community programs fostered environmental stewardship among younger generations. Informal knowledge-sharing sessions between fishers and scientists also enriched conservation strategies by integrating traditional ecological knowledge with modern scientific approaches (Thorton and Scheer, 2012; Young, et al., 2016).
Ecological assessments and habitat suitability
Scientific assessments indicate that Magalumbi Island has favorable ecological conditions for establishing the Manlot Protected Area. Water quality tests indicated optimal levels of dissolved oxygen, salinity, and pH, supporting the survival and growth of Tridacna gigas and associated marine species (Adams, et al., 2013) Geospatial mapping identified critical habitats, including coral reefs and seagrass beds, which provide shelter and feeding grounds for clams and fish populations (Paul and George, 2016). Biodiversity surveys confirmed the presence of key marine organisms, though reduced abundance of Manlot shells was observed due to historical overharvesting (Adam, et al., 2013; Angulo-Valdes and Hatcher, 2011). Habitat degradation from unsustainable fishing practices and waste pollution was noted as a significant ecological concern, requiring immediate intervention.
Community knowledge and perceptions
Findings from interviews and focus group discussions revealed that local fishers and residents hold extensive traditional ecological knowledge, particularly regarding spawning seasons, fishing grounds, and changes in marine biodiversity. Most participants acknowledged a decline in clam populations and fish stocks, attributing it to overfishing, destructive practices, and weak enforcement of conservation laws. Despite initial skepticism, many community members expressed support for establishing a Marine Protected Area, recognizing its potential to restore biodiversity, ensure food security, and create alternative livelihood opportunities through ecotourism. Elders emphasized the importance of reviving traditional conservation practices, while younger stakeholders highlighted aspirations for new livelihood ventures linked to tourism and marine protection.
Attitudes toward conservation and resource management
The narratives indicated a growing awareness among residents that marine conservation directly affects their socio-economic well-being. Fisherfolk reported adopting more sustainable fishing practices, and several community-led initiatives such as waste segregation, mangrove planting, and reef monitoring were identified. However, concerns were raised about enforcement capacity, resource constraints, and persistent illegal activities such as poaching and cyanide fishing. Participants strongly emphasized the need for continuous education, stricter law enforcement, and consistent government support to ensure the long-term viability of the proposed MPA.
Community participation and governance
Stakeholders reported active participation in consultations, planning sessions, and environmental campaigns organized during the study. Fisherfolk associations, women’s groups, and youth organizations played significant roles in awareness campaigns and conservation projects. Local government officials expressed willingness to integrate MPA initiatives into barangay ordinances but acknowledged challenges in monitoring, funding, and coordination with higher-level agencies. Community members recognized that effective governance required not only government oversight but also strong local participation and partnerships with academic institutions and conservation organizations.
Opportunities and challenges
Opportunities identified included developing eco-tourism as a sustainable livelihood, rehabilitating clam populations to restore fisheries, and strengthening environmental education programs in schools and community centers. At the same time, challenges such as inadequate financial resources, inconsistent enforcement, waste management issues, and vulnerability to climate change were highlighted as persistent threats. The community stressed that without long-term institutional support and participatory governance, conservation gains could not be sustained.
This synergy created more context-sensitive management practices and strengthened community ownership of conservation outcomes. However, gaps remain in the accessibility of educational initiatives, particularly in remote areas, signaling the need for expanded outreach, interactive tools, and eco-tourism activities that reinforce awareness of conservation values. Long-term benefits of the Manlot MPA were also reflected in community narratives. Residents described the visible recovery of clams and fish populations, as well as the protective role of healthy reefs and seagrass beds in mitigating storm surges and coastal erosion. These accounts highlight the contribution of MPAs not only to biodiversity conservation but also to climate resilience and disaster risk reduction. Moreover, the involvement of women’s groups and youth organizations in clean-ups, marine monitoring, and eco-tourism initiatives demonstrates how inclusive participation can broaden community engagement and create alternative livelihood opportunities. Despite positive developments, stakeholders pointed out persistent barriers to long-term sustainability. Illegal fishing, poaching of clams, budget constraints, and limited enforcement capacity continue to undermine conservation gains. These findings affirm the need for institutional strengthening, increased resource allocation, and innovative approaches, including GIS mapping, drone surveillance, and AI-powered monitoring tools. At the policy level, participants emphasized the need to align local initiatives with broader national and international frameworks to secure financial support and legislative backing.
The narratives underscore that the success of the Manlot Protected Area depends on balancing ecological objectives with socio-economic realities. Community participation emerged as the foundation of effective governance, as conservation measures cannot succeed without local ownership. Education and awareness were identified as long-term investments in stewardship, while partnerships among government, academia, and civil society provided the institutional scaffolding needed for sustainability. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that the protection of the Manlot MPA is not only a matter of biodiversity conservation but also an avenue for empowering communities, enhancing livelihoods, and building climate resilience.
CONCLUSION
This study underscores the vital role of community participation, education, and inclusive governance in ensuring the sustainability of the Manlot Shell Marine Protected Area (MPA) in Magalumbi Island. Despite persistent challenges, including illegal fishing, habitat degradation, and pollution, the combined efforts of fisherfolk, local leaders, policymakers, scientists, and conservation advocates have already demonstrated progress in marine conservation. The findings reveal that successful MPAs require a holistic, integrative approach that draws on both scientific evidence and traditional ecological knowledge and actively engages the community in decision-making and management processes. The protection of the Manlot shells (Tridacna gigas) has not only ecological significance but also socio-economic value, as a well-managed MPA can enhance fisheries, promote eco-tourism, and strengthen local resilience against climate change impacts.
For the long-term success of the Manlot MPA, stronger enforcement of policies and governance mechanisms is crucial to deter illegal activities such as blast and cyanide fishing. Equally important is the expansion of education and awareness programs that instill stewardship in both younger generations and resource-dependent communities. Technological innovations, including GIS mapping, drone surveillance, and AI-powered monitoring, should be harnessed to provide real-time ecological data and strengthen evidence-based management. In addition, promoting eco-friendly livelihood alternatives such as community-based eco-tourism and sustainable fisheries will help reduce reliance on harmful practices while generating income for local residents. Conservation must also be linked to climate-resilience strategies through reef restoration, mangrove and seagrass rehabilitation, and coastal protection planning, thereby ensuring both environmental sustainability and human security.
Above all, the long-term protection of the Manlot Shell MPA will depend on empowering local communities to take a leading role in conservation. By providing training, financial resources, and participatory governance mechanisms, communities can develop a strong sense of ownership and accountability for the sanctuary. This study affirms that marine conservation is not solely the responsibility of scientists and policymakers but a shared commitment across sectors. With sustained advocacy, innovative policies, and collaborative governance, the Manlot MPA can serve as a model for community-driven marine resource management in the Philippines, thereby protecting biodiversity while fostering sustainable livelihoods for future generations.
Proposed barangay ordinances
The following are suggested outlines of Barangay Ordinances that will be promulgated by Barangay Tanao in Batad, Iloilo to protect the MPA:
- Marine protection and conservation ordinance
- Provides legal protection for the MPA, prohibiting destructive fishing practices, illegal harvesting, and other activities that threaten marine biodiversity.
- Defines penalties for violations to ensure compliance and deterrence.
- MPA monitoring and enforcement ordinance
- Creates a local enforcement team responsible for monitoring marine activities within the sanctuary.
- Implements routine biodiversity assessments, water quality testing, and habitat restoration programs.
- Establishes a reporting mechanism for violations and community grievances.
- Community engagement and education ordinance
- Mandates regular marine conservation education programs in local schools and barangay gatherings.
- Supports capacity-building workshops for fisherfolks and local businesses on sustainable fishing practices.
- Promotes the participation of local youth and organizations in marine conservation initiatives.
- Sustainable livelihood support ordinance
- Encourages the development of eco-friendly livelihood opportunities, such as eco-tourism and aquaculture, to provide alternative income sources for the community.
- Facilitates partnerships with environmental organizations and research institutions for technical and financial assistance.
- Institutionalization of the marine protection programs ordinance
- Ensures that marine conservation efforts are integrated into the barangay's long-term development plans.
- Establishes partnerships with local government units, academic institutions, and environmental agencies to secure funding and technical support.
The establishment of these barangay ordinances will provide a strong legal framework to support the sustainability of the Manlot Sanctuary Project. By integrating scientific research, community engagement, and sustainable development, the MPA can serve as a model for marine resource management, ensuring biodiversity conservation and economic prosperity for future generations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The project benefited from the generous support of the Local Government Unit (LGU) of the Municipality of Batad, Iloilo, and the Municipal Agricultural Office headed by the Municipal Mayor Elvira P. Alarcon, and the Brgy. Tanao Brgy. Officials headed by Brgy. Captain Eduardo Palmares. Special thanks to Brgy Kagawad Wilma Mendez of Brgy. Tanao; the Research Technical Staff: Nelia S. Cañete, Christian C. Amante, Romeo A. Bajada, Jr., and Rhazel Joy B. Selguera. Lastly, gratitude is extended to the Magalumbi Islanders, whose lives were touched as participants and beneficiaries of the project.
REFERENCES
Adams, A. L., Needham, E. W., & Knauer, J. (2013). The effect of shade on water quality parameters and survival and growth of juvenile fluted giant clams (Tridacna squamosa) cultured in a land-based growth trial. Aquaculture International, 21(6), 1311–1324.
Angulo-Valdés, J. A., & Hatcher, B. G. (2010). A new typology of benefits derived from marine protected areas. Marine Policy, 34(3), 635–644.
Borzée, A. (2023). A 13-step framework for better integration of streamlined conservation research. Integrative Conservation, 2(3), 156–164.
Di Franco, A., Hogg, K. E., Calò, A., Bennett, N. J., Sévin-Allouet, M.-A., Esparza Alaminos, O., & Lang, M. (2020). Improving marine protected area governance through collaboration and co-production. Journal of Environmental Management, 269, 110757.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110757
Erena, M. G., & Yesus, T. G. (2021). Mapping potential wildlife habitats around Haro Abba Diko controlled hunting area, Western Ethiopia. Ecology and Evolution, 11(16), 11282–11294.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.7913
Floren, A. S. (2003). The Philippine shell industry with special focus on Mactan, Cebu. Coastal Resource Management Project, Department of Environment and Natural Resources.
Islary, M., & Nautiyal, S. (2021). Biodiversity and ecosystem governance in Indian protected areas: A case study from Manas in Assam. Institute for Social and Economic Change.
Jimu, T., Williams, S., & Spocter, M. (2025). Analysing informal governance arrangements in small-scale fisheries: A case study of Norton, Zimbabwe. International Journal of the Commons, 19(1), 35–50.
https://doi.org/10.5334/ijc.1401
Nikitine, J., Wilson, A. M. W., & Dawson, T. P. (2018). Developing a framework for the efficient design and management of large-scale marine protected areas. Marine Policy, 94, 196–203.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.05.012
Nocito, E. S., Sullivan-Stack, J., Pike, E. P., Gjerde, K. M., & Brooks, C. M. (2022). Applying marine protected area frameworks to areas beyond national jurisdiction. Sustainability, 14(10), 5971.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105971
Paul, T., Dennis, A., & George, G. (2016). A review of remote sensing techniques for the visualization of mangroves, reefs, fishing grounds, and molluscan settling areas in tropical waters. In Seafloor mapping along continental shelves: Research and techniques for visualizing benthic environments (Vol. 13, pp. 105–123).
Paz, V., Ronquillo, W., & Lewis, H. (2011). Palawan Island palaeohistoric research project: Report on the 2011 El Nido field season. Archaeological Studies Program, University of the Philippines & National Museum of the Philippines.
Pegorelli, C., De Andres, M., García-Onetti, J., Rayo, S., & García-Sanabria, J. (2024). Marine protected areas as socio-economic systems: A method for defining socio-economic criteria in marine planning. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11, 1358950.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1358950
Post, K. (2016). Increasing the resilience of marine ecosystems: Creating and managing marine protected areas in the Philippines. Marine Conservation Philippines.
Thornton, T., & Scheer, A. (2012). Collaborative engagement of local and traditional knowledge and science in marine environments: A review. Ecology and Society, 17(3), Article 8.
https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-04714-170308
Wink, M. (2025, January). Abstracts of the 3rd International Electronic Conference on Diversity: Biodiversity of animals, plants and microorganisms. Biology and Life Sciences Forum, 39(1), 3.
https://doi.org/10.3390/blsf2025039003
Young, N., Nguyen, V. M., & Cooke, S. J. (2016). Knowledge users’ perspectives and advice on how to improve knowledge exchange and mobilization in the case of a co-managed fishery. Environmental Science & Policy, 66, 170–178.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.09.00
Assessing Community Knowledge and Perceptions on Marine Conservation for the Establishment of the Manlot (Tridacna gigas) Protected Area in Magalumbi Island
ABSTRACT
This study examines community knowledge and perceptions of marine conservation in relation to the proposed establishment of the Manlot Protected Area (MPA) on Magalumbi Island, Batad, Iloilo. A multi-method approach was applied, combining habitat assessments, biodiversity surveys, geospatial mapping, and stakeholder consultations. Semi-structured interviews with local fishers, policymakers, and environmental groups highlighted the community’s heavy reliance on marine resources and concerns about the declining Manlot population, driven by habitat degradation and overharvesting. While some residents initially expressed scepticism toward conservation measures, many acknowledged the potential benefits of an MPA, particularly in restoring fish stocks and developing eco-tourism as an alternative livelihood. Environmental assessments indicated favorable conditions for Manlot rehabilitation, including adequate coral cover and suitable water quality. However, challenges remain, including illegal fishing practices, poor waste management, and weak enforcement of existing regulations. To address these issues, a zoning plan was proposed that designates core conservation zones, buffer areas, and regulated-use zones to balance ecological protection with sustainable resource utilization. The study further highlights the importance of community participation through education campaigns and monitoring initiatives. Overall, it emphasizes an integrated framework that links biodiversity protection, environmental education, and sustainable livelihoods to support effective marine conservation.
Keywords: Biodiversity protection, community perceptions, eco-tourism, habitat assessment, Magalumbi Island, Manlot Protected Area, marine conservation, marine resource management, stakeholder engagement, sustainable livelihoods.
INTRODUCTION
Tridacna gigas, the largest extant bivalve, is a reef-associated keystone species that supports coral reef functioning through filter feeding, nutrient cycling, habitat provision, and calcium carbonate deposition (Angulo-Valdes &Hatcher, 2010; Di Franco et al., 2020). In the Philippines, population of T. gigas have declined by more than 90% since the late twentieth century due to overexploitation, habitat degradation, and illegal shell trade, leading to its current classification as Critically Endangered (Paz et al., 2011; Nocito et al., 2022). Despite legal protection and hatchery based stocking initiatives, recovery remains limited by low natural recruitment and persistent anthropogenic pressures, highlighting the need for effective spatial conservation measures (Thornton & Scheer, 2012; Nikitine et al., 2028). The designation of Manlot within the Marine Protected Area of the Municipality of Batad, Iloilo is therefore justified by its suitable reef habitats, integration within the ridge-to-reef coastal management, and strong potential for community-based co-management, all of which are critical for improving governance effectiveness and long-term conservation outcomes (Young et al.; & Post, 2016; Pegorelli et al., 2024).
The establishment and effective management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) rely heavily on the awareness, perceptions, and participation of local communities. For conservation initiatives to succeed, it is crucial to understand the ecological knowledge, cultural practices, and livelihood realities of those who directly interact with marine ecosystems. In the coastal community of Magalumbi Island, Batad, Iloilo, the conservation of Tridacna gigas (locally known as Manlot) and its associated habitats requires not only ecological assessments but also strong stakeholder engagement. Fisher folk, barangay leaders, and coastal residents remain at the forefront of both resource use and conservation, making their involvement indispensable (Jimu, et al., 2025).
This study investigates local knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding marine conservation and resource management within the proposed Manlot Protected Area. It further explores the ecological conditions, threats, and opportunities that determine the feasibility of clam rehabilitation and sustainable habitat protection. By integrating scientific analysis with participatory approaches, the research seeks to design a community-driven conservation framework that balances biodiversity protection with socio-economic needs.
The Manlot Protected Area is envisioned as both a sanctuary for marine biodiversity and a catalyst for sustainable livelihoods through ecotourism and responsible resource management (Floren, 2003; Isalary, et al., 2021; Wink, 2025). In doing so, the study positions Magalumbi Island as a model for community-based conservation in the Philippines, demonstrating how science, governance, and local stewardship can converge to secure long-term ecological resilience and human well-being.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
This study employed a qualitative-descriptive research design complemented by participatory and ecological assessment methods. The choice of design was rooted in the dual nature of the research problem: understanding both the socio-cultural dimensions of marine conservation and the scientific requirements for establishing a viable Marine Protected Area (MPA) in Magalumbi Island.
The qualitative component focused on exploring the lived experiences, ecological knowledge, and perceptions of local stakeholders who directly interact with the marine environment. Using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), and participatory observations, the study sought to capture narratives that reveal how community members perceive conservation initiatives, how traditional fishing practices shape resource management, and the challenges they face in protecting marine biodiversity. This approach provided rich, contextual insights that go beyond what quantitative data alone can reveal.
Simultaneously, the study integrated a scientific-ecological assessment, which included water quality analysis, biodiversity surveys, and geospatial mapping. These methods were employed to assess the environmental suitability of Magalumbi Island for the rehabilitation of Tridacna gigas (Manlot), and to identify threats and opportunities for long-term marine resource management. The inclusion of these methods ensured that conservation planning was grounded not only in community perspectives but also in empirical ecological data.
The research design was further guided by principles of participatory action research (PAR), recognizing that sustainable conservation requires active involvement of local communities in both data generation and decision-making. Local fisherfolk, barangay leaders, and environmental organizations were engaged throughout the process—from preliminary site assessments to the development of zoning plans—to promote ownership and ensure that conservation strategies were culturally sensitive, socially accepted, and practically feasible (Erena, et al., 2021; Borzee, 2023).
By combining qualitative inquiry, ecological evaluation, and participatory engagement, the study adopted a holistic and interdisciplinary approach. This design not only enabled triangulation of data sources, thereby enhancing the validity and reliability of the findings, but also aligned with the overarching objective of creating a community-driven conservation framework. In essence, the research design positioned the proposed Manlot Protected Area as both a scientific undertaking and a social process in which ecological sustainability and community empowerment are mutually reinforcing goals.
Study site
The research was conducted on Magalumbi Island, a coastal barangay in the municipality of Batad, Iloilo, located in the north-eastern part of Panay Island, Philippines. The island is located at approximately 11° 21′ N latitude and 123° 10′ E longitude, and is surrounded by the Visayan Sea, one of the country’s most biologically productive marine ecosystems. With a total land area of about 48 hectares, Magalumbi is home to a small yet highly dependent fishing community whose livelihood and cultural identity are closely tied to the sea. The island is ecologically significant as it harbors diverse marine habitats, including coral reefs, seagrass beds, and sandy substrates, which provide breeding and feeding grounds for various fish species, invertebrates, and marine megafauna. Notably, Magalumbi serves as a natural habitat for the endangered giant clam Tridacna gigas (locally known as Manlot), a species recognized as both ecologically vital and culturally symbolic. These clams play a key role in maintaining reef health by filtering water, enhancing nutrient cycling, and providing shelter for reef-associated organisms.
Despite its ecological importance, Magalumbi faces mounting pressures from overfishing, destructive fishing methods (e.g., cyanide and blast fishing), unregulated harvesting of giant clams, and inadequate waste management. Additionally, the community’s reliance on marine resources for daily sustenance and income creates both opportunities and challenges for conservation. While local fishers recognize the decline of marine resources, economic necessity often drives unsustainable practices. Socio-culturally, the island is characterized by a tightly knit community with strong traditions of collective fishing, shared resource use, and indigenous ecological knowledge. Barangay officials, fisherfolk associations, and women’s groups play central roles in community governance and decision-making.
These dynamics make Magalumbi an ideal site for examining how local knowledge, perceptions, and practices influence the feasibility of establishing a community-managed Marine Protected Area (MPA). From a conservation-planning perspective, Magalumbi is strategically positioned to serve as a pilot site for biodiversity protection and ecotourism development in northern Iloilo. Its proximity to other marine-rich areas in the Visayan Sea enhances its potential role as part of a broader network of MPAs in the region. Moreover, the presence of schools, local organizations, and engaged fisherfolk provides a strong foundation for integrating environmental education and participatory governance into conservation initiatives. Magalumbi Island offers both ecological richness and pressing conservation challenges, making it a critical site for exploring the intersections of biodiversity protection, community participation, and sustainable livelihoods.
Participants and sampling
The participants in this study were drawn from key stakeholder groups directly involved in marine resource use and conservation on Magalumbi Island, Batad, Iloilo. They included fisherfolk, barangay officials, coastal residents, and representatives of environmental organizations. A total of twenty participants were purposively selected to ensure diverse representation of perspectives across ecological knowledge, governance, and livelihood practices. Among them, fisherfolk constituted the largest group, as they hold extensive traditional ecological knowledge on fishing grounds, spawning seasons, and observed shifts in marine biodiversity. Barangay officials and policymakers were also involved, given their roles in local governance, ordinance enforcement, and decision-making processes critical to establishing a Marine Protected Area (MPA). In addition, coastal residents who are not directly engaged in fishing, such as women, youth, and small-scale entrepreneurs, were included to capture broader community views on conservation and alternative livelihood opportunities. Finally, representatives from environmental organizations and advocacy groups were invited to contribute their scientific expertise and conservation experience.
The study employed purposive sampling, in which participants were deliberately selected for their relevance to marine conservation and resource management, and maximum variation sampling to ensure diversity in age, gender, and livelihood backgrounds. This approach allowed the research to capture a broad spectrum of lived experiences and community insights. Recruitment was facilitated through barangay meetings, fisherfolk associations, and local networks, with voluntary participation emphasized at all stages. Ethical principles were strictly observed: participants were fully informed about the study’s objectives, their consent was secured, and confidentiality was maintained throughout. By engaging multiple stakeholder groups and prioritizing inclusivity, the study ensured that the findings reflected both the ecological realities and socio-economic conditions of Magalumbi Island, thus providing a strong foundation for the development of a community-driven Manlot Protected Area.
Data collection methods
To obtain a comprehensive understanding of community knowledge, perceptions, and ecological conditions in Magalumbi Island, the study employed multiple qualitative and ecological data collection techniques. Primary data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with fisherfolk, barangay officials, policymakers, and representatives of environmental organizations. These interviews, guided by open-ended questions, enabled participants to share personal experiences, traditional ecological knowledge, and perceptions of marine conservation in their own words, while giving the researcher flexibility to probe emerging themes. To complement these individual accounts, focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with fisherfolk associations and community leaders to generate dialogue, compare perspectives, and capture collective insights on resource use, conservation challenges, and livelihood opportunities.
Participatory observations were conducted to document community interactions with the marine environment, including daily fishing practices, waste management behaviors, and compliance with local ordinances. This approach provided firsthand insights into lived practices that might not have been fully articulated in interviews or group discussions. To strengthen ecological validity, habitat assessments and biodiversity surveys were conducted, focusing on coral cover, seagrass beds, and water quality parameters relevant to the survival of Tridacna gigas (Manlot). These scientific assessments were supplemented by geospatial mapping, which identified critical habitats, fishing grounds, and potential conservation zones.
Document analysis was undertaken to review existing barangay ordinances, municipal policies, and previous reports on marine biodiversity and resource management in the area. This triangulation of qualitative, ecological, and documentary data enriched the study by ensuring multiple perspectives were considered and by cross-verifying community narratives with scientific and policy records. Ethical protocols were strictly followed throughout, with participants providing informed consent and assurances of confidentiality. Together, these methods provided a holistic and credible account of the ecological and socio-cultural dynamics influencing the proposed Manlot Protected Area.
Data analysis
Narrative analysis was used to examine interview and FGD transcripts, identifying recurring themes related to community perceptions, ecological knowledge, and conservation practices. Triangulation was applied by cross-referencing interview data with observational notes, environmental assessments, and document reviews, thereby ensuring credibility and accuracy. Ecological data were analyzed descriptively and spatially to inform habitat suitability and zoning recommendations.
Ethical considerations
The study adhered to ethical research standards, prioritizing transparency, voluntary participation, and respect for indigenous knowledge. Participants' confidentiality and anonymity were maintained, and findings were reported with sensitivity to local cultural and socioeconomic contexts. The aim of the methodology section is to describe how the research was conducted as well as to enhance the credibility of the research. In case the research is quantitative, the methodology should present the way numerical data was collected and how mathematical analyses are conducted to observe, analyze, assess, and test experiments and hypotheses. Qualitative research involves the collection and analysis of non-numeric data (e.g., text, video, or audio) with the aim of explaining concepts, opinions, perspectives, or personal experiences.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The findings of this study, interpreted through narrative analysis, provide a holistic perspective on the ecological, socio-economic, and cultural dynamics shaping marine conservation in Magalumbi Island. Anchored in the lived experiences of fisherfolk, policymakers, and conservation advocates, the results highlight both the potential and the challenges associated with establishing the Manlot Protected Area (MPA). Narratives revealed the ecological conditions of the island, particularly water quality, biodiversity, and habitat suitability for Tridacna gigas (Manlot), while also uncovering community perceptions of conservation, enforcement challenges, and waste management practices.
Community accounts consistently emphasized the strong link between resource conservation and local well-being. Many fishers recognized that a well-managed MPA could restore declining fish stocks, improve food security, and create ecotourism opportunities. Elders drew attention to the value of traditional ecological knowledge, recalling past practices that supported sustainability, while younger participants expressed aspirations for livelihood diversification through eco-tourism and conservation-related work. These intergenerational perspectives underscored the potential of the Manlot Sanctuary to serve as both an ecological safeguard and a socio-economic catalyst. At the same time, concerns over weak enforcement, illegal fishing, and resource limitations emerged as recurring themes. Stakeholders emphasized the importance of stricter policy enforcement, ongoing monitoring, and community education as essential measures to sustain conservation initiatives. These insights align with prior research highlighting that participatory governance, local compliance, and policy integration are critical to MPA effectiveness (Di Franco, et. Al, 2020).
Narratives also documented existing best practices such as waste segregation, coral restoration, and sustainable fishing that demonstrated how community-led initiatives can directly enhance ecosystem resilience when properly supported by local governance and external partnerships. The study further revealed the transformative role of education and awareness. Teachers, youth groups, and researchers emphasized that embedding marine conservation into school curricula and community programs fostered environmental stewardship among younger generations. Informal knowledge-sharing sessions between fishers and scientists also enriched conservation strategies by integrating traditional ecological knowledge with modern scientific approaches (Thorton and Scheer, 2012; Young, et al., 2016).
Ecological assessments and habitat suitability
Scientific assessments indicate that Magalumbi Island has favorable ecological conditions for establishing the Manlot Protected Area. Water quality tests indicated optimal levels of dissolved oxygen, salinity, and pH, supporting the survival and growth of Tridacna gigas and associated marine species (Adams, et al., 2013) Geospatial mapping identified critical habitats, including coral reefs and seagrass beds, which provide shelter and feeding grounds for clams and fish populations (Paul and George, 2016). Biodiversity surveys confirmed the presence of key marine organisms, though reduced abundance of Manlot shells was observed due to historical overharvesting (Adam, et al., 2013; Angulo-Valdes and Hatcher, 2011). Habitat degradation from unsustainable fishing practices and waste pollution was noted as a significant ecological concern, requiring immediate intervention.
Community knowledge and perceptions
Findings from interviews and focus group discussions revealed that local fishers and residents hold extensive traditional ecological knowledge, particularly regarding spawning seasons, fishing grounds, and changes in marine biodiversity. Most participants acknowledged a decline in clam populations and fish stocks, attributing it to overfishing, destructive practices, and weak enforcement of conservation laws. Despite initial skepticism, many community members expressed support for establishing a Marine Protected Area, recognizing its potential to restore biodiversity, ensure food security, and create alternative livelihood opportunities through ecotourism. Elders emphasized the importance of reviving traditional conservation practices, while younger stakeholders highlighted aspirations for new livelihood ventures linked to tourism and marine protection.
Attitudes toward conservation and resource management
The narratives indicated a growing awareness among residents that marine conservation directly affects their socio-economic well-being. Fisherfolk reported adopting more sustainable fishing practices, and several community-led initiatives such as waste segregation, mangrove planting, and reef monitoring were identified. However, concerns were raised about enforcement capacity, resource constraints, and persistent illegal activities such as poaching and cyanide fishing. Participants strongly emphasized the need for continuous education, stricter law enforcement, and consistent government support to ensure the long-term viability of the proposed MPA.
Community participation and governance
Stakeholders reported active participation in consultations, planning sessions, and environmental campaigns organized during the study. Fisherfolk associations, women’s groups, and youth organizations played significant roles in awareness campaigns and conservation projects. Local government officials expressed willingness to integrate MPA initiatives into barangay ordinances but acknowledged challenges in monitoring, funding, and coordination with higher-level agencies. Community members recognized that effective governance required not only government oversight but also strong local participation and partnerships with academic institutions and conservation organizations.
Opportunities and challenges
Opportunities identified included developing eco-tourism as a sustainable livelihood, rehabilitating clam populations to restore fisheries, and strengthening environmental education programs in schools and community centers. At the same time, challenges such as inadequate financial resources, inconsistent enforcement, waste management issues, and vulnerability to climate change were highlighted as persistent threats. The community stressed that without long-term institutional support and participatory governance, conservation gains could not be sustained.
This synergy created more context-sensitive management practices and strengthened community ownership of conservation outcomes. However, gaps remain in the accessibility of educational initiatives, particularly in remote areas, signaling the need for expanded outreach, interactive tools, and eco-tourism activities that reinforce awareness of conservation values. Long-term benefits of the Manlot MPA were also reflected in community narratives. Residents described the visible recovery of clams and fish populations, as well as the protective role of healthy reefs and seagrass beds in mitigating storm surges and coastal erosion. These accounts highlight the contribution of MPAs not only to biodiversity conservation but also to climate resilience and disaster risk reduction. Moreover, the involvement of women’s groups and youth organizations in clean-ups, marine monitoring, and eco-tourism initiatives demonstrates how inclusive participation can broaden community engagement and create alternative livelihood opportunities. Despite positive developments, stakeholders pointed out persistent barriers to long-term sustainability. Illegal fishing, poaching of clams, budget constraints, and limited enforcement capacity continue to undermine conservation gains. These findings affirm the need for institutional strengthening, increased resource allocation, and innovative approaches, including GIS mapping, drone surveillance, and AI-powered monitoring tools. At the policy level, participants emphasized the need to align local initiatives with broader national and international frameworks to secure financial support and legislative backing.
The narratives underscore that the success of the Manlot Protected Area depends on balancing ecological objectives with socio-economic realities. Community participation emerged as the foundation of effective governance, as conservation measures cannot succeed without local ownership. Education and awareness were identified as long-term investments in stewardship, while partnerships among government, academia, and civil society provided the institutional scaffolding needed for sustainability. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that the protection of the Manlot MPA is not only a matter of biodiversity conservation but also an avenue for empowering communities, enhancing livelihoods, and building climate resilience.
CONCLUSION
This study underscores the vital role of community participation, education, and inclusive governance in ensuring the sustainability of the Manlot Shell Marine Protected Area (MPA) in Magalumbi Island. Despite persistent challenges, including illegal fishing, habitat degradation, and pollution, the combined efforts of fisherfolk, local leaders, policymakers, scientists, and conservation advocates have already demonstrated progress in marine conservation. The findings reveal that successful MPAs require a holistic, integrative approach that draws on both scientific evidence and traditional ecological knowledge and actively engages the community in decision-making and management processes. The protection of the Manlot shells (Tridacna gigas) has not only ecological significance but also socio-economic value, as a well-managed MPA can enhance fisheries, promote eco-tourism, and strengthen local resilience against climate change impacts.
For the long-term success of the Manlot MPA, stronger enforcement of policies and governance mechanisms is crucial to deter illegal activities such as blast and cyanide fishing. Equally important is the expansion of education and awareness programs that instill stewardship in both younger generations and resource-dependent communities. Technological innovations, including GIS mapping, drone surveillance, and AI-powered monitoring, should be harnessed to provide real-time ecological data and strengthen evidence-based management. In addition, promoting eco-friendly livelihood alternatives such as community-based eco-tourism and sustainable fisheries will help reduce reliance on harmful practices while generating income for local residents. Conservation must also be linked to climate-resilience strategies through reef restoration, mangrove and seagrass rehabilitation, and coastal protection planning, thereby ensuring both environmental sustainability and human security.
Above all, the long-term protection of the Manlot Shell MPA will depend on empowering local communities to take a leading role in conservation. By providing training, financial resources, and participatory governance mechanisms, communities can develop a strong sense of ownership and accountability for the sanctuary. This study affirms that marine conservation is not solely the responsibility of scientists and policymakers but a shared commitment across sectors. With sustained advocacy, innovative policies, and collaborative governance, the Manlot MPA can serve as a model for community-driven marine resource management in the Philippines, thereby protecting biodiversity while fostering sustainable livelihoods for future generations.
Proposed barangay ordinances
The following are suggested outlines of Barangay Ordinances that will be promulgated by Barangay Tanao in Batad, Iloilo to protect the MPA:
The establishment of these barangay ordinances will provide a strong legal framework to support the sustainability of the Manlot Sanctuary Project. By integrating scientific research, community engagement, and sustainable development, the MPA can serve as a model for marine resource management, ensuring biodiversity conservation and economic prosperity for future generations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The project benefited from the generous support of the Local Government Unit (LGU) of the Municipality of Batad, Iloilo, and the Municipal Agricultural Office headed by the Municipal Mayor Elvira P. Alarcon, and the Brgy. Tanao Brgy. Officials headed by Brgy. Captain Eduardo Palmares. Special thanks to Brgy Kagawad Wilma Mendez of Brgy. Tanao; the Research Technical Staff: Nelia S. Cañete, Christian C. Amante, Romeo A. Bajada, Jr., and Rhazel Joy B. Selguera. Lastly, gratitude is extended to the Magalumbi Islanders, whose lives were touched as participants and beneficiaries of the project.
REFERENCES
Adams, A. L., Needham, E. W., & Knauer, J. (2013). The effect of shade on water quality parameters and survival and growth of juvenile fluted giant clams (Tridacna squamosa) cultured in a land-based growth trial. Aquaculture International, 21(6), 1311–1324.
Angulo-Valdés, J. A., & Hatcher, B. G. (2010). A new typology of benefits derived from marine protected areas. Marine Policy, 34(3), 635–644.
Borzée, A. (2023). A 13-step framework for better integration of streamlined conservation research. Integrative Conservation, 2(3), 156–164.
Di Franco, A., Hogg, K. E., Calò, A., Bennett, N. J., Sévin-Allouet, M.-A., Esparza Alaminos, O., & Lang, M. (2020). Improving marine protected area governance through collaboration and co-production. Journal of Environmental Management, 269, 110757.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110757
Erena, M. G., & Yesus, T. G. (2021). Mapping potential wildlife habitats around Haro Abba Diko controlled hunting area, Western Ethiopia. Ecology and Evolution, 11(16), 11282–11294.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.7913
Floren, A. S. (2003). The Philippine shell industry with special focus on Mactan, Cebu. Coastal Resource Management Project, Department of Environment and Natural Resources.
Islary, M., & Nautiyal, S. (2021). Biodiversity and ecosystem governance in Indian protected areas: A case study from Manas in Assam. Institute for Social and Economic Change.
Jimu, T., Williams, S., & Spocter, M. (2025). Analysing informal governance arrangements in small-scale fisheries: A case study of Norton, Zimbabwe. International Journal of the Commons, 19(1), 35–50.
https://doi.org/10.5334/ijc.1401
Nikitine, J., Wilson, A. M. W., & Dawson, T. P. (2018). Developing a framework for the efficient design and management of large-scale marine protected areas. Marine Policy, 94, 196–203.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.05.012
Nocito, E. S., Sullivan-Stack, J., Pike, E. P., Gjerde, K. M., & Brooks, C. M. (2022). Applying marine protected area frameworks to areas beyond national jurisdiction. Sustainability, 14(10), 5971.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105971
Paul, T., Dennis, A., & George, G. (2016). A review of remote sensing techniques for the visualization of mangroves, reefs, fishing grounds, and molluscan settling areas in tropical waters. In Seafloor mapping along continental shelves: Research and techniques for visualizing benthic environments (Vol. 13, pp. 105–123).
Paz, V., Ronquillo, W., & Lewis, H. (2011). Palawan Island palaeohistoric research project: Report on the 2011 El Nido field season. Archaeological Studies Program, University of the Philippines & National Museum of the Philippines.
Pegorelli, C., De Andres, M., García-Onetti, J., Rayo, S., & García-Sanabria, J. (2024). Marine protected areas as socio-economic systems: A method for defining socio-economic criteria in marine planning. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11, 1358950.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1358950
Post, K. (2016). Increasing the resilience of marine ecosystems: Creating and managing marine protected areas in the Philippines. Marine Conservation Philippines.
Thornton, T., & Scheer, A. (2012). Collaborative engagement of local and traditional knowledge and science in marine environments: A review. Ecology and Society, 17(3), Article 8.
https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-04714-170308
Wink, M. (2025, January). Abstracts of the 3rd International Electronic Conference on Diversity: Biodiversity of animals, plants and microorganisms. Biology and Life Sciences Forum, 39(1), 3.
https://doi.org/10.3390/blsf2025039003
Young, N., Nguyen, V. M., & Cooke, S. J. (2016). Knowledge users’ perspectives and advice on how to improve knowledge exchange and mobilization in the case of a co-managed fishery. Environmental Science & Policy, 66, 170–178.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.09.00