ABSTRACT
Rural revitalization is a pivotal strategy for modernization of agriculture and rural areas in China. A thorough examination of the operational logic and internal mechanisms of rural revitalization is an urgent issue that needs to be addressed. As the core driving force and fundamental guarantee of rural revitalization, resource allocation plays a decisive role in the quality and efficiency of rural industrial development. Its rationality and effectiveness are directly related to the smooth advancement of rural revitalization. Therefore, exploring the internal logic of rural revitalization from the perspective of resource allocation and revealing how resource elements can be optimally allocated under the dual roles of market mechanisms and government regulation is of significant theoretical and practical importance. This paper systematically reviews the allocation mechanisms of key elements—land, labor, capital, data, and public service resources—in rural revitalization from the perspective of resource allocation. It also provides an in-depth and detailed interpretation of resource allocation models by combining successful case studies. The results show that establishing and improving a resource allocation mechanism that integrates urban and rural areas, promoting the efficient aggregation of multiple elements in rural areas, is key to achieving the strategic goal of comprehensive rural revitalization. This can effectively encourage the steady progress of agricultural and rural modernization.
Keywords: rural revitalization, resource allocation mechanisms, agricultural modernization
INTRODUCTION
The rural revitalization strategy serves as the overarching guideline for addressing China’s “agriculture, rural areas, and farmers” issues in the new era, providing the fundamental pathway to achieving agricultural and rural modernization, promoting urban-rural integration, and realizing common prosperity. Since the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China in 2017 first proposed the rural revitalization strategy and emphasized “giving priority to agricultural and rural development,” successive Central Documents No. 1 have focused on the deployment of policies for rural revitalization, covering five major areas: industrial, talent, cultural, ecological, and organizational revitalization. In 2025, the State Council successively released the “Comprehensive Rural Revitalization Plan (2024–2027)” and the “Opinions of the State Council on Further Deepening Rural Reform and Promoting Comprehensive Rural Revitalization,” systematically planning the main objectives and policy measures for comprehensive rural revitalization in the coming period. The “Comprehensive Rural Revitalization Plan (2024-2027)” scientifically outlines and systematically deploys nine key tasks to advance comprehensive rural revitalization, encompassing optimizing urban-rural development patterns, ensuring food security, developing agricultural industries, cultivating rural talent, promoting rural culture, improving rural ecology, building livable villages, deepening agricultural and rural reforms, and strengthening rural grassroots organizational construction. To support the effective implementation of these goals, the plan promotes rural revitalization through five core areas. It promotes industrial revitalization by developing modern agricultural industries and integrated rural value chains to enhance farmers’ incomes. Talent revitalization is pursued through the cultivation of local expertise and the attraction of professionals to participate in rural development. Cultural revitalization involves preserving rural cultural identity, promoting traditional values, and fostering community cohesion. Ecological revitalization is advanced through sustainable, green development and the protection of rural ecosystems. Finally, the focus of organizational revitalization is to strengthen the modernization of rural governance structures, ensuring effective and people-responsive rural administration.
For a long time, China’s rural resource allocation has faced problems of inefficiency and fragmentation, manifested in extensive land use, insufficient agricultural capital investment, rural talent outflow, and shortages of public services. Achieving an efficient allocation of land, labor, capital, technology, and other resources under the dual influence of market mechanisms and policy support is a core issue in addressing the problems of unbalanced and inadequate rural development and advancing agricultural modernization.
Existing research on resource allocation in rural China primarily focuses on the three most important factors of production: land, labor, and capital. In terms of land resource allocation, Yan Jinming et al. (2020) and Qian Wenrong et al. (2021) discuss the problems and reform directions in China’s land system from the perspective of market-oriented reform of land elements. Liu Shouying (2022) and Shi Baofeng & Wang Ruiqi (2023) focus on the evolution of land policies, while Zhu Shie et al. (2024) and Gai Qingen et al. (2023) focus on the relationship between land transfer and agricultural production models, pointing out that land transfer can directly improve the efficiency of farmland allocation, affect farmers’ employment choices and technology adoption, and enhance total factor productivity in agriculture. Others summarize the process of reforming rural resource allocation from the perspective of urban-rural relations. Cai Fang (2017) notes that institutional reforms in labor allocation since the reform and opening up have significantly improved productivity and are a key driver of China’s rapid economic growth. Cai Fang (2023) and Zhang Jipeng and Chen Zhu (2024) further note that, despite some progress in household registration system reform, barriers to labor mobility between urban and rural areas and regions still exist, restricting the free flow of labor. In terms of capital allocation, although rural finance in China has made certain progress, its effectiveness in supporting rural industrial development and increasing farmers’ income remains limited (Chen Yiming & Li Jing, 2024).
This paper approaches the issue from the perspective of resource allocation, drawing on the current background of factor allocation systems and integration mechanisms within the context of rural revitalization strategy. It explains in detail the pathways and models for optimizing resource allocation in China’s rural revitalization. By reviewing policy backgrounds and the evolution of mechanisms, summarizing successful experiences in typical regions, and extracting replicable and referential models, the paper promotes the deep integration of resource allocation with rural governance, industrial development, and ecological protection, thereby deepening the understanding of resource allocation in rural revitalization.
POLICY SUPPORT FOR RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN RURAL REVITALIZATION
The rational allocation of resources for rural revitalization requires closely related policy support. In recent years, China has gradually established a comprehensive policy system for resource allocation in rural revitalization, covering multiple key areas including fiscal, financial, talent, land, and household registration policies. This multifaceted policy framework is designed to systematically ensure the effective allocation of resources for rural revitalization.
Fiscal policy
Priority is given to public budget investment in agriculture and rural areas to ensure that fiscal input is aligned with the objectives of rural revitalization. The 2023 Central Document No. 1 also emphasized “continuing to prioritize agriculture and rural areas in the general public budget and solidifying the responsibility of local governments for investment.” Specifically, in 2023, central government subsidies for rural revitalization reached 175 billion yuan, an increase of 10 billion yuan over the previous year. Agricultural insurance premium subsidies were set at 45.9 billion yuan, and transfer payments from the central government totaled 177 billion yuan, aimed at increasing support for border areas.
The central government focuses on supporting the effective connection between poverty alleviation achievements and rural revitalization, prioritizing the use of revitalization subsidies to increase farmers’ incomes in poverty-stricken areas. This helps those lifted out of poverty to continue increasing their income, supports necessary infrastructure construction, and enhances living and production conditions in poor areas. Ensuring grain production and the supply of key agricultural products is the top priority of fiscal support for rural revitalization. As it advances, the central government will continue to strengthen financial support for rural revitalization, including improving the income guarantee mechanism for grain farmers and the benefit compensation mechanism for major grain-producing areas, further enhancing subsidies for corn and soybean producers, appropriately raising the minimum purchase price for wheat, reasonably determining the minimum purchase price for rice, and increasing rewards for major grain-producing counties. Support for high-standard farmland construction, seed industry revitalization, and breakthroughs in key agricultural technologies will also be strengthened. A diversified investment mechanism for rural revitalization will be established, and eligible rural revitalization projects will be included in government bond support. Given the massive funding required for rural revitalization, a combination of fiscal and financial resources, as well as government and social investment, will be utilized to leverage central fiscal funds and attract more economic and social capital into agriculture and rural areas according to market principles. While strengthening fiscal support is essential, the efficiency of fund utilization must not be overlooked. Performance management of budgetary support for agriculture will be enhanced, a sound performance evaluation mechanism will be established, and evaluation results will be linked to budget allocations to improve the efficiency of fiscal fund use.
Financial policy
The 2023 Central Document No. 1 has outlined clear requirements for financial work related to agriculture, rural areas, and farmers (the “three rural” issues) in both the present and the future. It emphasizes the need to establish a robust linkage mechanism between government investment and financial and social inputs. The document encourages the implementation of eligible projects by market entities by regulations, thereby leveraging financial and social capital to flow more towards agriculture and rural areas based on market principles.
The People's Bank of China (PBOC), the Financial Regulation Administration, the China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC), the Ministry of Finance, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs jointly issued the "Guiding Opinions on Financial Support for the Comprehensive Promotion of Rural Revitalization and the Accelerated Construction of an Agricultural Powerhouse." This document outlines specific requirements for financial services to support the production of grain and other important agricultural products, consolidate financial support for poverty alleviation achievements, and strengthen the financial supply for the construction of an agricultural powerhouse.
The PBOC and other relevant departments actively guide financial service institutions to increase credit allocation for rural revitalization, continuously enhance financial support for the “three rural” areas, and provide more medium- and long-term credit support for key areas such as grain and significant agricultural product production and rural infrastructure within their business scope. Financial institutions are encouraged to issue bonds related to the “three rural” areas, small and micro enterprises, and green finance to broaden the channels for lendable funds. Relying on financial technology, efforts are made to promote the construction of demonstration projects for rural revitalization, develop inclusive financial products and services that benefit farmers, and improve the level of digitally inclusive finance in rural areas.
Talent support policies
Talent support is a pivotal factor in achieving rural revitalization. The "Opinions on Accelerating the Promotion of Rural Talent Revitalization" outlines detailed plans for strengthening rural talent cultivation, developing rural human capital, enhancing rural talent work mechanisms, and improving talent revitalization guarantee measures. The policy focuses on cultivating agricultural production and management talent through the implementation of the modern farmer training program, with an emphasis on nurturing family farm operators and leaders of farmer cooperatives. It also aims to develop talent for the rural secondary and tertiary industries through the Rural Entrepreneurship Leader Action, thereby strengthening the team of rural entrepreneurs. Additionally, the policy highlights the importance of cultivating e-commerce talent, traditional rural craftsmen, and rural migrant labor. Public service talent is developed by enhancing the team of rural teachers and health professionals. Rural governance talent is fostered through the "One College Student per Village" program and by encouraging the recruitment of college graduates to work in rural areas. The training of agricultural science and technology innovation and extension talent is also accelerated to support technological advancements in the agricultural sector. These measures collectively aim to create a robust talent pool that can drive sustainable rural development and contribute to the comprehensive revitalization of rural areas.
Land policy
To ensure the rationality and sustainability of land use for rural revitalization, the Ministry of Natural Resources has participated in developing several policy documents, including the “Land Use Policy Guide for Rural Revitalization (2023)” and the “Notice of the General Office of the Ministry of Natural Resources on Strengthening Village Planning to Promote Rural Revitalization.” These aim to scientifically promote village planning and management, improve arable land protection measures, and activate collective construction land. The “Land Use Policy Guide for Rural Revitalization (2023)” is the first specialized guiding document for land use policy under the rural revitalization strategy, covering rural residential land, industrial land, public infrastructure land, and land for ecological protection and restoration, to stimulate land use potential and improving development efficiency, while adhering to the strictest arable land protection, environmental protection, and land conservation systems. It also lists common illegal uses of arable land in rural areas, along with corresponding penalties. The “Notice on Strengthening Village Planning to Promote Rural Revitalization” requires that village planning adhere to the principle of “planning before construction,” with main tasks including ecological protection and restoration, arable land and permanent basic farmland protection, historical and cultural heritage protection, infrastructure and public service facility layout, industrial development, rural housing layout, and village safety and disaster prevention. The “Notice on Ensuring and Regulating Land Use for the Integrated Development of Rural Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Industries” clarifies the scope of land use for integrated rural development, including production, processing, circulation, and on-site consumption of agricultural products, with land uses classified as industrial, commercial, or logistics and warehousing. Land use supervision is further strengthened, with the strictest arable land protection system enforced, a firm prohibition on the Non-agricultural utilization of arable land, and a strict ban on illegal occupation of arable land for rural industrial construction or “non-gracilization” of arable land.
Household registration reform
In recent years, China has introduced a series of essential policies on household registration reform in the context of rural revitalization, aiming to promote the urbanization of agricultural migrants and the integration of urban and rural areas. These policies encompass household registration management, public services, employment, housing, and other key areas, offering robust support for resource allocation in rural revitalization. The “Five-Year Action Plan for the Implementation of a People-Centered New Urbanization Strategy” promotes the registration of household registration at regular places of residence, relaxes or removes settlement restrictions in all but a few megacities, and improves the national unified household registration management service platform to facilitate registration and migration. Public services are optimized, with a continued increase in the proportion of migrant children attending public schools. Cities are encouraged to gradually include stable and employed agricultural migrants in their urban housing security policies. The social security system has been improved, with flexible employment and migrant worker social insurance systems enhanced, and the restriction on household registration for social insurance in places of jobs removed. This guidance encourages agricultural migrants to participate in basic pension and medical insurance as required. Incentive mechanisms are improved, with fiscal rewards for the urbanization of farming migrants, and provinces with net population inflows are encouraged to establish corresponding reward mechanisms.
IMPLICATION FRAMEWORK
Implementing the rural revitalization strategy is a significant decision concerning the overall situation of the country and is the primary focus of “three rural” work in the new era. To effectively promote comprehensive rural revitalization, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council issued the “Comprehensive Rural Revitalization Plan (2024–2027),” clarifying the objectives and policy measures for the coming period, with a focus on urban-rural integration and comprehensive rural revitalization. The implementation framework for resource allocation in rural revitalization is as follows:
Central government level
The central government is responsible for formulating overall policies and plans, such as the “Comprehensive Rural Revitalization Plan (2024–2027),” which clarifies the general requirements, main objectives, and key tasks for rural revitalization nationwide, providing policy guidance and an action program. The central government focuses on improving the guarantee and optimization mechanisms for the allocation of resources, including land, labor, fiscal investment, data resources, and public resources. In terms of implementation, it coordinates and supervises, adhering to a mechanism of central coordination, provincial overall responsibility, and city/county/town implementation, strengthening statistical monitoring, and conducting timely evaluations of plan implementation.
Provincial government level
Provincial governments formulate specific implementation plans and rules based on central policies and local realities, clarifying provincial objectives, tasks, and key areas for rural revitalization. Provincial governments are responsible for integrating resources, such as fiscal funds, land quotas, and talent, and reasonably allocating them to cities, counties, and towns by central requirements and provincial plans. A scientific assessment and evaluation mechanism is established to quantitatively assess the rural revitalization work of cities and counties, supervise and guide their implementation, and ensure that policies and measures are effectively implemented.
City and county level
City and county party committees, as well as local governments, are the concrete implementers of rural revitalization, responsible for translating higher-level policies into specific projects and initiatives. At this level, local fiscal, land, and talent resources are integrated to provide supporting resources for rural revitalization projects, strengthen rural grassroots organizations, and mobilize farmers to participate in rural revitalization.
Village level
Village party organizations and committees are responsible for implementing rural revitalization projects. Based on actively receiving industrial support policies from higher-level governments, they make rational use of local land and labor resources to develop characteristic agriculture, rural tourism, and other industries. Farmers are encouraged to participate in all aspects of rural revitalization, and through land transfer, equity participation, and labor employment, they share in the value-added benefits of industry.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION MECHANISMS
Currently, land, labor, capital, and data resources are the most fundamental and essential production factors for rural revitalization, and the effectiveness of rural revitalization is closely tied to the scientific and rational allocation of these resources.
Optimizing land resource allocation
Developing new forms of rural collective economy and steadily advancing comprehensive rural revitalization require effective management of land resources (Chen, 2023). Land is the material basis and spatial carrier of economic and social development, and its allocation model and utilization efficiency are crucial in the context of a socialist market economy for rural revitalization (Yao et al., 2022). The 2024 No. 1 Central Document clearly states: “Improve the land transfer price formation mechanism and explore effective ways to prevent unreasonable increases in transfer costs. Prudently advance the reform of the rural homestead system. Deepen the reform of the rural collective property rights system and promote the healthy development of new forms of rural collective economy.” Land is an irreplaceable means of production, and together with labor, it is the source of wealth creation. The scale, location, and quality of land have a decisive impact on agricultural production, highlighting the importance of optimizing land resource allocation.
Strengthening arable land protection ensures both the quantity and quality of cultivated land. The “National Territorial Spatial Planning Outline (2021–2035)” sets clear targets for arable land retention, assigning 124.46 million hectares of arable land retention and 103.12 million hectares of permanent basic farmland protection tasks to provinces, and incorporating them into spatial planning at all levels. According to the third national land survey, from 2010 to 2020, China’s arable land decreased by 7.55 million hectares with the annual reduction slightly increasing, mainly due to agricultural structural adjustment and land greening. However, through a series of protection measures, the trend of arable land loss has been curbed to some extent. Key measures include: First, it emphasizes strict control over the use of arable land, clarifying the priority sequence for land utilization. Permanent basic farmland is prioritized for grain production, while general arable land is mainly allocated for the cultivation of grain, cotton, oil, sugar, and vegetables. The conversion of arable land to other types of agricultural land, such as forest or orchard land, is strictly prohibited to prevent non-agricultural and non-grain uses of arable land. Second, the document calls for the standardization and improvement of the arable land replenishment balance. All types of arable land occupation activities, including non-agricultural construction and afforestation, are integrated into the management of replenishment balance to ensure that the quantity and quality of the supplemented arable land are equivalent to those of the occupied land. The principle of "replenishment determining occupation" is adhered to, with the net increase in arable land in the previous year serving as the prerequisite for approving arable land occupation in the following year, thereby avoiding the situation of "occupying high-quality land and supplementing with inferior land." Third, the document highlights the restoration and rational utilization of idle arable land. There are over 5.80 million hectares of agricultural land that can be directly restored to arable land, and 11.07 million hectares of agricultural land that can be restored to arable land through engineering measures. Reclamation and restoration efforts are thus advanced. At the same time, idle arable land is rationally utilized by guiding rural collective economic organizations and their members to restore cultivation of idle and wasteland through agricultural production entrustment and the transfer of land management rights. In terms of improving arable land quality, the construction of high-standard arable land has achieved remarkable results, with over 66.7 million hectares of high-standard arable land built nationwide by the end of 2023. This has provided strong support for the stable national grain output of more than 65 million tons for several consecutive years. The remediation of degraded arable land is also steadily progressing through the implementation of the National Black Soil Protection Project and the establishment of key counties for the remediation of acidified arable land in 15 provinces. Finally, the document highlights the enhancement of soil pollution prevention and control through the implementation of actions to prevent and control heavy metal pollution sources in agricultural land soil, such as cadmium, resulting in a downward trend in the overall content of heavy metals at key risk monitoring points nationwide.
The gradual reform of the “three rights separation” of homesteads is dynamically linked with the rural revitalization strategy. The “Comprehensive Rural Revitalization Plan (2024–2027)” further states: “Accelerate the completion of unified registration and certification of homesteads and houses, and allow the legal housing owned by farmers to be revitalized through leasing, equity participation, or cooperation.” This provides clear policy guidance for linking homestead reform with rural revitalization, helping to further activate the use rights of homesteads and increase farmers’ income. At the end of 2014, pilot projects for homestead system reform were launched in China, each with different emphases, including homestead reclamation and paid-use systems, homestead transfer, paid-use mechanisms, and exit mechanisms. Over the past decade, the pilot work on homestead system reform has undergone three distinct phases. The first phase, from 2015 to 2020, was the exploratory stage for pilot projects. In 2015, the State Council issued the “Opinions on Piloting the Reform of Rural Land Expropriation, Collective Commercial Construction Land Entry into the Market, and Homestead System,” marking the official initiation of the homestead system reform pilots. Between February 2015 and 2020, the number of pilot counties increased from 15 to 104, along with three prefecture-level cities. The second phase, from 2021 to 2023, focused on improving the institutional framework. In 2021, efforts were made to explore the registration of immovable property rights under the “three rights separation” (ownership, qualification, and use rights) for homesteads, as well as the registration of homestead use rights for mortgage purposes. Subsequently, the process of confirming rights and issuing certificates was accelerated, historical legacy issues were addressed, and effective forms for implementing the“three rights separation” were explored. At the same time, methods and standards for paid use and paid exit of homesteads were piloted; localities were encouraged to utilize idle homesteads for the development of relevant industries through self-operation, leasing, or equity participation; and the legitimate land rights of rural residents who move to urban areas were protected, with explicit prohibitions against forcing farmers to relinquish their homesteads solely on the grounds of urban household registration. The third phase, from 2024 to the present, is characterized by deepening reform and comprehensive advancement. Multiple provinces have issued detailed rules for the paid exit of homesteads. At the same time, the scope of homestead transfer has been expanded, allowing rural residents who have moved to cities to transfer their homestead use rights for compensation within their collective economic organizations. In February 2025, the release of the No. 1 Central Document further clarified and focused on the direction of the homestead system reform pilots.
Strengthening talent support
Labor mobility is primarily influenced by wage differentials, employment opportunities, infrastructure, and public services across regions. In the past, the eastern region, with a higher level of economic development and a strong industrial base, especially in high-end manufacturing and modern services, attracted a large influx of labor. In recent years, two-way population flows have begun to take shape. On one hand, urbanization has led to a continuous expansion of the agricultural migrant population. Deepening household registration system reform, relaxing urban settlement conditions, and improving supporting policies have broken down unreasonable barriers to labor mobility, promoting the optimal allocation of human resources. The implementation of a registration system for basic public services at the place of residence has enabled agricultural migrants to enjoy the same rights as residents in social insurance, housing security, and compulsory education for their children. Further relaxation of collective household establishment conditions and encouragement for the establishment of public collective households in towns, streets, villages, and communities have made settlement easier for various groups. According to the “2023 Migrant Workers Monitoring Survey Report,” the urban resident population increased from 710 million in 2012 to 930 million in 2023, an increase of about 31.0%; the urbanization rate of the resident population reached 66.2%, and the urbanization rate of the registered population reached 48.3%, up by 13.6% and 13.0%, respectively, compared to 2012.
On the other hand, the scale of talent returning to start businesses in rural areas has continued to expand, optimizing the structure of rural labor resources. Currently, more than 12 million people are returning to or entering rural areas to start businesses nationwide. Among them, young college students and urban white-collar workers have become an essential force for rural entrepreneurship. The Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, the Ministry of Finance, and the People’s Bank of China jointly issued the “Notice on Further Increasing the Discount on Entrepreneurship Guaranteed Loans to Fully Support Key Groups in Entrepreneurship and Employment,” which provides guaranteed loan support for returning migrant workers. Local governments have also introduced specific policies to support college students returning to start businesses, such as the “Implementation Opinions on Supporting College Students to Return Home for Entrepreneurship under the ‘Hundreds of Thousands of Projects’,” which proposes optimizing the treatment of returning entrepreneurial talent and building comprehensive service platforms for entrepreneurial talent. The Beijing Municipal Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Affairs released the "Implementation Opinions on Supporting Rural Entrepreneurship and Employment for Returning Personnel" in 2020, encouraging urban professionals such as technical staff from universities and research institutions, as well as university graduates, to bring capital and technology to rural areas for entrepreneurial development. Eligible returning entrepreneurs can receive personal entrepreneurship guarantee loans of up to US$43,000, with full interest subsidies provided by the finance department. For partnerships or joint ventures, entrepreneurship guarantee loans are granted at a maximum of US$14,000 per person, with a total cap of US$71,000. These policies offer comprehensive support to college students and migrant workers who return to start businesses, effectively alleviating their financial burdens and promoting the implementation and development of entrepreneurial projects.
Ensuring fiscal investment
Fiscal funds are an essential “logistical supply” for advancing rural revitalization. In 2025, the central government continued to support rural revitalization, allocating US$24.42 billion in subsidies to promote the development of industries that benefit farmers. Efforts to enhance the capacity for stable grain production and the supply of key agricultural products have been strengthened, with increased support for grain production, including subsidies for grain cultivation and agricultural insurance. Rural infrastructure construction has been enhanced through investments in rural roads, water conservancy, electricity, and other essential infrastructure, thereby improving rural production and living conditions. The development of multi-level agricultural insurance has been promoted, with US$7.46 billion allocated for premium subsidies. A system for providing tiered and classified assistance to low-income rural populations and underdeveloped areas has been established, and fiscal assistance policies for the transition period have been examined. The linkage mechanism between government investment, finance, and social investment has been improved, encouraging financial institutions to increase investment in agriculture-related fields and building a diversified investment pattern for rural revitalization.
Local finance also plays a vital role in supporting rural revitalization. For example, in 2022, Sichuan Province allocated US$23.82 billion from its general public budget for rural revitalization, including US$303 million for high-standard farmland construction, US$603.00 million for modern agricultural system construction, US$1.15 billion for the effective connection of poverty alleviation achievements with rural revitalization, US$125.50 million for policy insurance subsidies, US$216.49 million for forestry development, and US$165.48 million for comprehensive rural reform subsidies. In 2023, Shandong Province allocated US$10.52 billion for rural revitalization, supporting grain security, high-standard farmland and water network construction, seed industry revitalization, and the implementation of agricultural machinery purchase and arable land fertility protection subsidy policies.
Promoting data element allocation
Digital rural development is a strategic direction for rural revitalization and a crucial component of building a digital China. Data is a new type of production factor in the digital economy era, supporting rural revitalization in various ways.
Digital infrastructure is a key support for rural revitalization. The Chinese government has accelerated the development of rural broadband communication networks, mobile internet, digital television networks, and next-generation internet, vigorously promoting broadband and mobile communication network coverage in rural areas, achieving full broadband coverage in all administrative villages, and building a unified national medical insurance information platform and universal internet access for all primary and secondary schools. The digital transformation of rural infrastructure is being accelerated, promoting the digitalization and intelligent transformation of water conservancy, roads, electricity, cold chain logistics, agricultural production, and processing, as well as other infrastructure in rural areas. This effort aims to build smart water conservancy, smart transportation, smart grids, smart agriculture, and smart logistics.
The digital economy provides new momentum for the digital transformation of rural industries. The digitalization of agriculture is being promoted, accelerating the deep integration of new technologies with various agricultural sectors, building smart farms, and developing technological agriculture. Rural logistics service systems are being innovated, the “Internet +” agricultural product outflow project is being implemented, the coverage of postal and express outlets is being deepened, and smart logistics distribution centers are being built. Rural e-commerce demonstrations are being expanded, green supply chains are being established, and the integration of online and offline channels is being promoted. The integration of the internet and characteristic agriculture is being promoted, new industries are being developed, and the rural sharing economy is being regulated.
Improving public service resource allocation
The construction of the rural public service system has a direct impact on the sustainability of rural development and the quality of social services in rural areas. In the context of modernization, optimizing the level of rural public services is an essential means to achieve rural revitalization. Rational allocation of public service resources can enhance the quality of life for rural residents and foster social harmony and stability.
Education is the cornerstone of rural revitalization, enhancing the overall quality and skills of rural residents and providing talent support for rural development. Preschool education resources are disproportionately allocated to rural areas, with RMB124.194 billion (US$17.25 billion) of national fiscal education expenditure invested in rural kindergartens in 2021, ensuring that there is at least one public kindergarten per township. The basic conditions and capacity of rural compulsory education have been continuously improved, ensuring that rural children have the same educational opportunities as urban children, and the hardware and teaching staff of rural schools have been significantly enhanced. In 2021, US$766 billion of national fiscal education expenditure was invested in rural compulsory education. Digital teaching equipment was provided to rural compulsory education schools, and the rural student nutrition improvement program benefited 350 million students.
Optimizing medical service resources is crucial to enhancing the health of rural residents and fostering healthy communities. The infrastructure of rural medical and health services has been further improved, the functional layout of rural medical and health institutions has been optimized, and the rural medical and health talent team has been strengthened. Efforts have been made to improve the quality of personnel, optimize and reasonably guarantee the organizational structure, and ensure a reasonable level of remuneration. The prevention and control of key infectious diseases, endemic diseases, and parasitic diseases in rural areas have been strengthened. The rural health industry has been developed in accordance with local conditions, and the integration of health with tourism, the internet, and fitness and leisure has been promoted. Localities are guided to explore the development of the rural health industry.
Rational allocation of housing resources is an important measure to improve the living conditions and quality of life of rural residents. On the one hand, the safety management of existing rural housing is strengthened through regular inspections and the rectification of safety hazards, continuous renovation of dilapidated and earthquake-prone houses, and the timely inclusion and renovation of eligible key objects. On the other hand, the long-term mechanism for the safety management of new rural housing is improved. Rural housing construction should comply with village planning and adhere to principles of land conservation and sustainable use. The design and construction of houses must meet relevant quality and safety standards, and the fiscal budget for the management of rural housing construction should be reasonably allocated to ensure the renovation of dilapidated houses and supporting facilities and to support the improvement of rural housing quality and safety.
Elderly care is a crucial measure to address the aging of the rural population and enhance the quality of life for rural elderly individuals. Rational allocation of elderly care resources is a crucial task, affecting the well-being of hundreds of millions of rural elderly individuals and the successful implementation of the national strategy for an active response to population aging and rural revitalization. Government departments work together to establish a multi-input mechanism and plan rationally: development and reform departments include rural elderly care services in economic and social development plans; natural resources departments improve rural elderly care land policies and coordinate the spatial layout of rural elderly care facilities; county-level and higher governments include the operating expenses of government-run rural care facilities and the funds needed for the support of those in need in the fiscal budget; fiscal departments support the development of rural elderly care services as required; the People’s Bank of China and financial regulatory authorities guide financial institutions to strengthen financial support for rural elderly care services under the premise of compliance and risk control. The Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security is responsible for improving the fundraising and benefit adjustment mechanisms for basic pension insurance for urban and rural residents, as well as raising the level of pension benefits.
Rational allocation of social security funds is an essential means to protect the fundamental living rights and interests of rural residents and promote social equity and stability. In terms of coverage, the legal coverage of social insurance is promoted, and the coverage of unemployment insurance is expanded, allowing more migrant workers to participate in unemployment insurance and enjoy policy protection. Occupational injury protection for flexible rural workers is strengthened, and the “Five-Year Action Plan for the Prevention of Occupational Injuries (2021–2025)” is implemented, focusing on high-incidence industries and enterprises to prevent poverty or return to poverty due to injury. Restrictions on household registration for migrant workers participating in employee pension insurance at their place of employment are removed, and full coverage of basic pension insurance is promoted. In terms of security, the level of social insurance benefits is increased, and improvements and adjustments to basic pension insurance for urban and rural residents are promoted, with timely increases in the basic pension standard. A unified method is promoted for migrant workers and urban employees to participate in and pay for unemployment insurance, ensuring equal treatment. The policy of development, providing skill improvement subsidies to migrant workers participating in unemployment insurance, thereby promoting rural revitalization.
Infrastructure construction is one of the core contents of resource allocation for rural revitalization and the “hardware” foundation for ensuring and improving rural livelihoods. Infrastructure is upgraded to enhance road network coverage, strengthen water supply security, consolidate and upgrade rural power grids, enhance the quality of housing and safety, promote the integration of rural toilet reform and sewage treatment, improve waste treatment, rationally arrange rural community service facilities, and improve digital information infrastructure, thus facilitating the construction of digital villages.
RESULTS
Anji County’s Bamboo Forest Carbon Sequestration Reform
Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) is the most common bamboo species in China, characterized by strong environmental adaptability and an extremely wide distribution. Its growth rate is the fastest among all bamboo varieties, enabling it to rapidly form bamboo forests and provide abundant timber resources in a short period. Anji County, known as “China’s No. 1 Bamboo Township,” has 58,000 hectares of moso bamboo forest and once accounted for 20% of the national bamboo industry output value, despite contributing only 1.8% of the national bamboo output. However, in recent years, due to market conditions, bamboo prices have declined year after year, and many bamboo farmers have chosen to work in cities, resulting in the large-scale abandonment of bamboo forests. To address this, the Anji County government actively promoted green development and ecological enrichment, exploring bamboo forest carbon sequestration reform, building a bamboo forest carbon trading platform, and transforming ecological resources into an ecological economy to achieve shared prosperity.
The government first implemented forest tenure reform to promote the transfer of bamboo forests. The primary targets of land transfer were administrative villages with more than 66.67 hectares of bamboo forest. Transfer payments were managed digitally, with funds distributed directly to farmers, and through specialized cooperatives. Collective forest rights were then transferred to the bamboo forest carbon trading center to implement the bamboo forest carbon enhancement project. Currently, Anji County has established 119 specialized bamboo forest cooperatives, transferred 56,000 hectares of bamboo forest land, and successfully transitioned from dispersed to centralized management. The county has completed US$772.24 million in transfer payments, covering 71 villages, with an average annual increase in collective income of US$89,635 per village and US$931 per household, promoting shared prosperity for forest farmers. The government has also innovated carbon finance products, opening up the entire chain from production to storage and trading through the Bamboo Forest Carbon Trading Center.
By 2023, four banks had granted a total credit line of US$551.60 million to the Bamboo Forest Carbon Trading Center, and 25,000 tons of carbon credits had been traded with 21 enterprises, generating US$238,000 in income, with US$66,800 in feedback income for village collectives. This not only provides direct economic benefits to village collectives and farmers but also supports the sustainable management of bamboo forests. By 2025, Anji County is expected to have over 53,333 hectares of carbon sequestration projects in reserve, with an annual output of over 500,000 tons of carbon credits. This not only produces ecological benefits and enhances local carbon absorption capacity but also promotes the diversification of the bamboo economy and increases farmers’ income.
Anji County’s bamboo forest carbon sequestration reform provides a reference for other regions. Through rational resource allocation, the reform achieves a win-win situation that benefits both environmental and financial interests.
Jiuguan subdistrict’s “future village” construction
Jiuguan Subdistrict is located at the core of the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration, at the intersection of the Shanghai and Hangzhou metropolitan areas, with convenient transportation. The subdistrict already has a robust resource base, with 13 cultural and tourism venues, including straw painting studios, art galleries, and farming museums. It has successfully created a 3A-level scenic street in Zhejiang Province, providing a solid foundation for future village development. With the planning of the Zhejiang Provincial Department of Culture and Tourism to create the province’s only new era rural tourism industry integration development pilot zone in Nanxun District, Jiuguan Subdistrict, under the support of favorable policies, has become a vital practice site for the “Ten Million Project” and the rural revitalization strategy. In response to the demand for common prosperity and digital reform, Jiuguan Subdistrict has seized the opportunity of comprehensive land consolidation and ecological restoration to actively promote the construction of “future villages,” meeting the strong demand of residents to improve the appearance of their villages.
In terms of resource allocation, comprehensive land consolidation is used to integrate land resources, linking digital technologies such as 5G communication and Beidou navigation to create intelligent “digital fields” with integrated precision fertilization, scientific pesticide application, and water-saving irrigation, as well as a digital service system covering the entire process of production, drying, processing, and storage. Jiuguan Subdistrict also attaches importance to inheriting historical culture and creating ancient villages with historical and cultural value, allowing rural cultural heritage to contribute to rural revitalization. Based on existing cultural and tourism venues, plans include further development of characteristic agriculture (rice, landscape agriculture, etc.), ancient building development, and homestays, emphasizing the extraction, inheritance, and development of traditional culture, integrating rural cultural elements into community style, and building spatial carriers and systems for rural culture.
In resource allocation for rural revitalization, Jiuguan Subdistrict, based on systematic thinking of “comprehensive land consolidation,” is gradually building a spatial pattern of intensive land use, integration of primary, secondary, and tertiary industries, and ecological livability, promoting the coordinated realization of goals such as optimizing living environments, improving public services, upgrading industries, and strengthening collective economies.
Qingyuan county’s sweet pomelo industry
Qingyuan County, located in western Zhejiang Province, has leveraged its unique climate and ecological advantages to, serving as an important means of rural revitalization and increasing farmers’ income. Qingyuan County has formulated a detailed development plan for the sweet pomelo industry, with a planned planting area of 3,333 hectares and a total output of 100,000 tons, aiming to build the sweet pomelo industry into a US$1.38 billion industry.
Resource allocation covers the entire chain of sweet pomelo production, processing, and sales. In production, scale and standardization have been achieved through land transfer and the transformation of wasteland and abandoned hills into the most extensive contiguous fruit orchard. To increase farmers’ enthusiasm for planting, Qingyuan County has introduced various support policies, including a subsidy of US$2,068 per hectare for new bases and supporting infrastructure such as road hardening and water-fertilizer integration for bases over 6.67 hectares, further reducing farmers’ input costs. Scientific and talent support is also provided, with annual special training for sweet pomelo, study tours to leading citrus-producing areas, and regular expert guidance. Standards such as the “Sweet Pomelo Production Technical Specification” and “Comprehensive Pest and Disease Control Specification” have been revised.
According to the latest data from 2024, the sweet pomelo planting area in Qingyuan County reached 19,400 mu (1,294 hectares), with an annual output of 14,800 tons and an annual output value of US$26.06 million. This makes it the largest sweet pomelo production area in China, driving local farmers to achieve common prosperity. Currently, there are more than 200 sweet pomelo growers, seven leading agricultural enterprises, over 70 family farms, and more than 3,000 employees in Qingyuan County, which drives the incomes of more than 40,000 people, with the total industry chain output value exceeding US$413.7 million.
Chuxiong prefecture talent returnee entrepreneurship practice
Implementing rural revitalization hinges on people, with the core being "talent revitalization." In recent years, Chuxiong Prefecture has focused on the "returning goose economy" as an entry point, strengthened policy guidance, improved service systems, and stimulated entrepreneurial enthusiasm, effectively attracting a large number of talents to return home and start businesses.
In terms of policy support, the Chuxiong Prefecture Human Resources and Social Security Bureau has established a systematic service mechanism covering policy support, publicity guidance, training assistance, and financial backing. Through measures such as tax and fee reductions, loan guarantees, and startup subsidies, the prefecture provides comprehensive support for returning entrepreneurs, building a policy system that underpins mass entrepreneurship. These policies not only boost confidence in returning to start businesses but also foster a vibrant atmosphere for innovation and entrepreneurship. As of 2021, the prefecture had organized 493,200 instances of rural labor training, issued US$111.59 million in entrepreneurship guarantee loans, supported 4,236 entrepreneurial entities, and created 11,274 jobs. The number of various market entities grew from 124,000 in 2017 to 213,000, a 72.16% increase.
In attracting talent to return, Chuxiong Prefecture also emphasizes combining emotional mobilization with institutional development. By establishing a database of talents working outside the prefecture and leveraging platforms such as labor liaison stations, policy promotion teams, and project recommendation groups, the prefecture systematically conveys information about hometown development and entrepreneurial opportunities to these talents, providing them with informational support for returning to start businesses.
Under policy support, an increasing number of Chuxiong natives working elsewhere have chosen to return home and start businesses. For example, with the coordination of local villages and towns, university graduates have leased land to grow loquats, established cooperatives, and driven 1,286 households to develop high-quality loquat cultivation, covering 867.1 hectares and achieving an annual output value exceeding US$137,900). This initiative not only revitalized land resources but also achieved a win-win for farmers' income growth and industrial upgrading. Another example involves migrant workers returning home to establish edible mushroom cooperatives, creating an integrated production chain covering cultivation, processing, and sales for Stropharia rugosoannulata, with an annual output value of US$413,800. The government has provided continuous support in land leasing, infrastructure construction, and financial subsidies, enabling these entrepreneurs to broaden their paths to success.
CONCLUSION
Based on the institutional background of the rural revitalization strategy, this paper systematically reviews the relevant policy system, analyzes the resource allocation system and the distribution mechanisms of land, capital, talent, technology, and public services, and combined with typical regional cases, deeply explores the important role of resource allocation in promoting rural revitalization. First, resource allocation is an important driver of rural revitalization. Only through the integrated and efficient allocation of land, capital, talent, technology, and public services can the potential of rural development be effectively stimulated, the level of agricultural modernization be scientifically improved, and rural revitalization be promoted in an orderly manner. Second, it is necessary to establish a multi-level collaborative governance system and a locally adapted resource allocation system. In the multi-level governance system of central coordination, local leadership, and village-level implementation, each region develops resource allocation paths with local characteristics based on its own resource endowments and industrial foundation. This promotes an effective linkage between policy and practice, enhancing the relevance and sustainability of resource allocation. Finally, the analysis of typical regional practice cases proves the effectiveness and feasibility of resource allocation. Anji County leveraged bamboo forest carbon sequestration reform to realize the value of ecological resources; Jiuguan Subdistrict built “future villages” through land integration and digital empowerment; and Qingyuan County realized efficient resource flow and value enhancement through a characteristic industry chain. These cases show that scientific resource allocation not only enhances the competitiveness of rural industries but also significantly increases farmers’ incomes and improves rural governance capacity, with strong potential for replication and reference.
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Resource Allocation in China’s Rural Revitalization
ABSTRACT
Rural revitalization is a pivotal strategy for modernization of agriculture and rural areas in China. A thorough examination of the operational logic and internal mechanisms of rural revitalization is an urgent issue that needs to be addressed. As the core driving force and fundamental guarantee of rural revitalization, resource allocation plays a decisive role in the quality and efficiency of rural industrial development. Its rationality and effectiveness are directly related to the smooth advancement of rural revitalization. Therefore, exploring the internal logic of rural revitalization from the perspective of resource allocation and revealing how resource elements can be optimally allocated under the dual roles of market mechanisms and government regulation is of significant theoretical and practical importance. This paper systematically reviews the allocation mechanisms of key elements—land, labor, capital, data, and public service resources—in rural revitalization from the perspective of resource allocation. It also provides an in-depth and detailed interpretation of resource allocation models by combining successful case studies. The results show that establishing and improving a resource allocation mechanism that integrates urban and rural areas, promoting the efficient aggregation of multiple elements in rural areas, is key to achieving the strategic goal of comprehensive rural revitalization. This can effectively encourage the steady progress of agricultural and rural modernization.
Keywords: rural revitalization, resource allocation mechanisms, agricultural modernization
INTRODUCTION
The rural revitalization strategy serves as the overarching guideline for addressing China’s “agriculture, rural areas, and farmers” issues in the new era, providing the fundamental pathway to achieving agricultural and rural modernization, promoting urban-rural integration, and realizing common prosperity. Since the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China in 2017 first proposed the rural revitalization strategy and emphasized “giving priority to agricultural and rural development,” successive Central Documents No. 1 have focused on the deployment of policies for rural revitalization, covering five major areas: industrial, talent, cultural, ecological, and organizational revitalization. In 2025, the State Council successively released the “Comprehensive Rural Revitalization Plan (2024–2027)” and the “Opinions of the State Council on Further Deepening Rural Reform and Promoting Comprehensive Rural Revitalization,” systematically planning the main objectives and policy measures for comprehensive rural revitalization in the coming period. The “Comprehensive Rural Revitalization Plan (2024-2027)” scientifically outlines and systematically deploys nine key tasks to advance comprehensive rural revitalization, encompassing optimizing urban-rural development patterns, ensuring food security, developing agricultural industries, cultivating rural talent, promoting rural culture, improving rural ecology, building livable villages, deepening agricultural and rural reforms, and strengthening rural grassroots organizational construction. To support the effective implementation of these goals, the plan promotes rural revitalization through five core areas. It promotes industrial revitalization by developing modern agricultural industries and integrated rural value chains to enhance farmers’ incomes. Talent revitalization is pursued through the cultivation of local expertise and the attraction of professionals to participate in rural development. Cultural revitalization involves preserving rural cultural identity, promoting traditional values, and fostering community cohesion. Ecological revitalization is advanced through sustainable, green development and the protection of rural ecosystems. Finally, the focus of organizational revitalization is to strengthen the modernization of rural governance structures, ensuring effective and people-responsive rural administration.
For a long time, China’s rural resource allocation has faced problems of inefficiency and fragmentation, manifested in extensive land use, insufficient agricultural capital investment, rural talent outflow, and shortages of public services. Achieving an efficient allocation of land, labor, capital, technology, and other resources under the dual influence of market mechanisms and policy support is a core issue in addressing the problems of unbalanced and inadequate rural development and advancing agricultural modernization.
Existing research on resource allocation in rural China primarily focuses on the three most important factors of production: land, labor, and capital. In terms of land resource allocation, Yan Jinming et al. (2020) and Qian Wenrong et al. (2021) discuss the problems and reform directions in China’s land system from the perspective of market-oriented reform of land elements. Liu Shouying (2022) and Shi Baofeng & Wang Ruiqi (2023) focus on the evolution of land policies, while Zhu Shie et al. (2024) and Gai Qingen et al. (2023) focus on the relationship between land transfer and agricultural production models, pointing out that land transfer can directly improve the efficiency of farmland allocation, affect farmers’ employment choices and technology adoption, and enhance total factor productivity in agriculture. Others summarize the process of reforming rural resource allocation from the perspective of urban-rural relations. Cai Fang (2017) notes that institutional reforms in labor allocation since the reform and opening up have significantly improved productivity and are a key driver of China’s rapid economic growth. Cai Fang (2023) and Zhang Jipeng and Chen Zhu (2024) further note that, despite some progress in household registration system reform, barriers to labor mobility between urban and rural areas and regions still exist, restricting the free flow of labor. In terms of capital allocation, although rural finance in China has made certain progress, its effectiveness in supporting rural industrial development and increasing farmers’ income remains limited (Chen Yiming & Li Jing, 2024).
This paper approaches the issue from the perspective of resource allocation, drawing on the current background of factor allocation systems and integration mechanisms within the context of rural revitalization strategy. It explains in detail the pathways and models for optimizing resource allocation in China’s rural revitalization. By reviewing policy backgrounds and the evolution of mechanisms, summarizing successful experiences in typical regions, and extracting replicable and referential models, the paper promotes the deep integration of resource allocation with rural governance, industrial development, and ecological protection, thereby deepening the understanding of resource allocation in rural revitalization.
POLICY SUPPORT FOR RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN RURAL REVITALIZATION
The rational allocation of resources for rural revitalization requires closely related policy support. In recent years, China has gradually established a comprehensive policy system for resource allocation in rural revitalization, covering multiple key areas including fiscal, financial, talent, land, and household registration policies. This multifaceted policy framework is designed to systematically ensure the effective allocation of resources for rural revitalization.
Fiscal policy
Priority is given to public budget investment in agriculture and rural areas to ensure that fiscal input is aligned with the objectives of rural revitalization. The 2023 Central Document No. 1 also emphasized “continuing to prioritize agriculture and rural areas in the general public budget and solidifying the responsibility of local governments for investment.” Specifically, in 2023, central government subsidies for rural revitalization reached 175 billion yuan, an increase of 10 billion yuan over the previous year. Agricultural insurance premium subsidies were set at 45.9 billion yuan, and transfer payments from the central government totaled 177 billion yuan, aimed at increasing support for border areas.
The central government focuses on supporting the effective connection between poverty alleviation achievements and rural revitalization, prioritizing the use of revitalization subsidies to increase farmers’ incomes in poverty-stricken areas. This helps those lifted out of poverty to continue increasing their income, supports necessary infrastructure construction, and enhances living and production conditions in poor areas. Ensuring grain production and the supply of key agricultural products is the top priority of fiscal support for rural revitalization. As it advances, the central government will continue to strengthen financial support for rural revitalization, including improving the income guarantee mechanism for grain farmers and the benefit compensation mechanism for major grain-producing areas, further enhancing subsidies for corn and soybean producers, appropriately raising the minimum purchase price for wheat, reasonably determining the minimum purchase price for rice, and increasing rewards for major grain-producing counties. Support for high-standard farmland construction, seed industry revitalization, and breakthroughs in key agricultural technologies will also be strengthened. A diversified investment mechanism for rural revitalization will be established, and eligible rural revitalization projects will be included in government bond support. Given the massive funding required for rural revitalization, a combination of fiscal and financial resources, as well as government and social investment, will be utilized to leverage central fiscal funds and attract more economic and social capital into agriculture and rural areas according to market principles. While strengthening fiscal support is essential, the efficiency of fund utilization must not be overlooked. Performance management of budgetary support for agriculture will be enhanced, a sound performance evaluation mechanism will be established, and evaluation results will be linked to budget allocations to improve the efficiency of fiscal fund use.
Financial policy
The 2023 Central Document No. 1 has outlined clear requirements for financial work related to agriculture, rural areas, and farmers (the “three rural” issues) in both the present and the future. It emphasizes the need to establish a robust linkage mechanism between government investment and financial and social inputs. The document encourages the implementation of eligible projects by market entities by regulations, thereby leveraging financial and social capital to flow more towards agriculture and rural areas based on market principles.
The People's Bank of China (PBOC), the Financial Regulation Administration, the China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC), the Ministry of Finance, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs jointly issued the "Guiding Opinions on Financial Support for the Comprehensive Promotion of Rural Revitalization and the Accelerated Construction of an Agricultural Powerhouse." This document outlines specific requirements for financial services to support the production of grain and other important agricultural products, consolidate financial support for poverty alleviation achievements, and strengthen the financial supply for the construction of an agricultural powerhouse.
The PBOC and other relevant departments actively guide financial service institutions to increase credit allocation for rural revitalization, continuously enhance financial support for the “three rural” areas, and provide more medium- and long-term credit support for key areas such as grain and significant agricultural product production and rural infrastructure within their business scope. Financial institutions are encouraged to issue bonds related to the “three rural” areas, small and micro enterprises, and green finance to broaden the channels for lendable funds. Relying on financial technology, efforts are made to promote the construction of demonstration projects for rural revitalization, develop inclusive financial products and services that benefit farmers, and improve the level of digitally inclusive finance in rural areas.
Talent support policies
Talent support is a pivotal factor in achieving rural revitalization. The "Opinions on Accelerating the Promotion of Rural Talent Revitalization" outlines detailed plans for strengthening rural talent cultivation, developing rural human capital, enhancing rural talent work mechanisms, and improving talent revitalization guarantee measures. The policy focuses on cultivating agricultural production and management talent through the implementation of the modern farmer training program, with an emphasis on nurturing family farm operators and leaders of farmer cooperatives. It also aims to develop talent for the rural secondary and tertiary industries through the Rural Entrepreneurship Leader Action, thereby strengthening the team of rural entrepreneurs. Additionally, the policy highlights the importance of cultivating e-commerce talent, traditional rural craftsmen, and rural migrant labor. Public service talent is developed by enhancing the team of rural teachers and health professionals. Rural governance talent is fostered through the "One College Student per Village" program and by encouraging the recruitment of college graduates to work in rural areas. The training of agricultural science and technology innovation and extension talent is also accelerated to support technological advancements in the agricultural sector. These measures collectively aim to create a robust talent pool that can drive sustainable rural development and contribute to the comprehensive revitalization of rural areas.
Land policy
To ensure the rationality and sustainability of land use for rural revitalization, the Ministry of Natural Resources has participated in developing several policy documents, including the “Land Use Policy Guide for Rural Revitalization (2023)” and the “Notice of the General Office of the Ministry of Natural Resources on Strengthening Village Planning to Promote Rural Revitalization.” These aim to scientifically promote village planning and management, improve arable land protection measures, and activate collective construction land. The “Land Use Policy Guide for Rural Revitalization (2023)” is the first specialized guiding document for land use policy under the rural revitalization strategy, covering rural residential land, industrial land, public infrastructure land, and land for ecological protection and restoration, to stimulate land use potential and improving development efficiency, while adhering to the strictest arable land protection, environmental protection, and land conservation systems. It also lists common illegal uses of arable land in rural areas, along with corresponding penalties. The “Notice on Strengthening Village Planning to Promote Rural Revitalization” requires that village planning adhere to the principle of “planning before construction,” with main tasks including ecological protection and restoration, arable land and permanent basic farmland protection, historical and cultural heritage protection, infrastructure and public service facility layout, industrial development, rural housing layout, and village safety and disaster prevention. The “Notice on Ensuring and Regulating Land Use for the Integrated Development of Rural Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Industries” clarifies the scope of land use for integrated rural development, including production, processing, circulation, and on-site consumption of agricultural products, with land uses classified as industrial, commercial, or logistics and warehousing. Land use supervision is further strengthened, with the strictest arable land protection system enforced, a firm prohibition on the Non-agricultural utilization of arable land, and a strict ban on illegal occupation of arable land for rural industrial construction or “non-gracilization” of arable land.
Household registration reform
In recent years, China has introduced a series of essential policies on household registration reform in the context of rural revitalization, aiming to promote the urbanization of agricultural migrants and the integration of urban and rural areas. These policies encompass household registration management, public services, employment, housing, and other key areas, offering robust support for resource allocation in rural revitalization. The “Five-Year Action Plan for the Implementation of a People-Centered New Urbanization Strategy” promotes the registration of household registration at regular places of residence, relaxes or removes settlement restrictions in all but a few megacities, and improves the national unified household registration management service platform to facilitate registration and migration. Public services are optimized, with a continued increase in the proportion of migrant children attending public schools. Cities are encouraged to gradually include stable and employed agricultural migrants in their urban housing security policies. The social security system has been improved, with flexible employment and migrant worker social insurance systems enhanced, and the restriction on household registration for social insurance in places of jobs removed. This guidance encourages agricultural migrants to participate in basic pension and medical insurance as required. Incentive mechanisms are improved, with fiscal rewards for the urbanization of farming migrants, and provinces with net population inflows are encouraged to establish corresponding reward mechanisms.
IMPLICATION FRAMEWORK
Implementing the rural revitalization strategy is a significant decision concerning the overall situation of the country and is the primary focus of “three rural” work in the new era. To effectively promote comprehensive rural revitalization, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council issued the “Comprehensive Rural Revitalization Plan (2024–2027),” clarifying the objectives and policy measures for the coming period, with a focus on urban-rural integration and comprehensive rural revitalization. The implementation framework for resource allocation in rural revitalization is as follows:
Central government level
The central government is responsible for formulating overall policies and plans, such as the “Comprehensive Rural Revitalization Plan (2024–2027),” which clarifies the general requirements, main objectives, and key tasks for rural revitalization nationwide, providing policy guidance and an action program. The central government focuses on improving the guarantee and optimization mechanisms for the allocation of resources, including land, labor, fiscal investment, data resources, and public resources. In terms of implementation, it coordinates and supervises, adhering to a mechanism of central coordination, provincial overall responsibility, and city/county/town implementation, strengthening statistical monitoring, and conducting timely evaluations of plan implementation.
Provincial government level
Provincial governments formulate specific implementation plans and rules based on central policies and local realities, clarifying provincial objectives, tasks, and key areas for rural revitalization. Provincial governments are responsible for integrating resources, such as fiscal funds, land quotas, and talent, and reasonably allocating them to cities, counties, and towns by central requirements and provincial plans. A scientific assessment and evaluation mechanism is established to quantitatively assess the rural revitalization work of cities and counties, supervise and guide their implementation, and ensure that policies and measures are effectively implemented.
City and county level
City and county party committees, as well as local governments, are the concrete implementers of rural revitalization, responsible for translating higher-level policies into specific projects and initiatives. At this level, local fiscal, land, and talent resources are integrated to provide supporting resources for rural revitalization projects, strengthen rural grassroots organizations, and mobilize farmers to participate in rural revitalization.
Village level
Village party organizations and committees are responsible for implementing rural revitalization projects. Based on actively receiving industrial support policies from higher-level governments, they make rational use of local land and labor resources to develop characteristic agriculture, rural tourism, and other industries. Farmers are encouraged to participate in all aspects of rural revitalization, and through land transfer, equity participation, and labor employment, they share in the value-added benefits of industry.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION MECHANISMS
Currently, land, labor, capital, and data resources are the most fundamental and essential production factors for rural revitalization, and the effectiveness of rural revitalization is closely tied to the scientific and rational allocation of these resources.
Optimizing land resource allocation
Developing new forms of rural collective economy and steadily advancing comprehensive rural revitalization require effective management of land resources (Chen, 2023). Land is the material basis and spatial carrier of economic and social development, and its allocation model and utilization efficiency are crucial in the context of a socialist market economy for rural revitalization (Yao et al., 2022). The 2024 No. 1 Central Document clearly states: “Improve the land transfer price formation mechanism and explore effective ways to prevent unreasonable increases in transfer costs. Prudently advance the reform of the rural homestead system. Deepen the reform of the rural collective property rights system and promote the healthy development of new forms of rural collective economy.” Land is an irreplaceable means of production, and together with labor, it is the source of wealth creation. The scale, location, and quality of land have a decisive impact on agricultural production, highlighting the importance of optimizing land resource allocation.
Strengthening arable land protection ensures both the quantity and quality of cultivated land. The “National Territorial Spatial Planning Outline (2021–2035)” sets clear targets for arable land retention, assigning 124.46 million hectares of arable land retention and 103.12 million hectares of permanent basic farmland protection tasks to provinces, and incorporating them into spatial planning at all levels. According to the third national land survey, from 2010 to 2020, China’s arable land decreased by 7.55 million hectares with the annual reduction slightly increasing, mainly due to agricultural structural adjustment and land greening. However, through a series of protection measures, the trend of arable land loss has been curbed to some extent. Key measures include: First, it emphasizes strict control over the use of arable land, clarifying the priority sequence for land utilization. Permanent basic farmland is prioritized for grain production, while general arable land is mainly allocated for the cultivation of grain, cotton, oil, sugar, and vegetables. The conversion of arable land to other types of agricultural land, such as forest or orchard land, is strictly prohibited to prevent non-agricultural and non-grain uses of arable land. Second, the document calls for the standardization and improvement of the arable land replenishment balance. All types of arable land occupation activities, including non-agricultural construction and afforestation, are integrated into the management of replenishment balance to ensure that the quantity and quality of the supplemented arable land are equivalent to those of the occupied land. The principle of "replenishment determining occupation" is adhered to, with the net increase in arable land in the previous year serving as the prerequisite for approving arable land occupation in the following year, thereby avoiding the situation of "occupying high-quality land and supplementing with inferior land." Third, the document highlights the restoration and rational utilization of idle arable land. There are over 5.80 million hectares of agricultural land that can be directly restored to arable land, and 11.07 million hectares of agricultural land that can be restored to arable land through engineering measures. Reclamation and restoration efforts are thus advanced. At the same time, idle arable land is rationally utilized by guiding rural collective economic organizations and their members to restore cultivation of idle and wasteland through agricultural production entrustment and the transfer of land management rights. In terms of improving arable land quality, the construction of high-standard arable land has achieved remarkable results, with over 66.7 million hectares of high-standard arable land built nationwide by the end of 2023. This has provided strong support for the stable national grain output of more than 65 million tons for several consecutive years. The remediation of degraded arable land is also steadily progressing through the implementation of the National Black Soil Protection Project and the establishment of key counties for the remediation of acidified arable land in 15 provinces. Finally, the document highlights the enhancement of soil pollution prevention and control through the implementation of actions to prevent and control heavy metal pollution sources in agricultural land soil, such as cadmium, resulting in a downward trend in the overall content of heavy metals at key risk monitoring points nationwide.
The gradual reform of the “three rights separation” of homesteads is dynamically linked with the rural revitalization strategy. The “Comprehensive Rural Revitalization Plan (2024–2027)” further states: “Accelerate the completion of unified registration and certification of homesteads and houses, and allow the legal housing owned by farmers to be revitalized through leasing, equity participation, or cooperation.” This provides clear policy guidance for linking homestead reform with rural revitalization, helping to further activate the use rights of homesteads and increase farmers’ income. At the end of 2014, pilot projects for homestead system reform were launched in China, each with different emphases, including homestead reclamation and paid-use systems, homestead transfer, paid-use mechanisms, and exit mechanisms. Over the past decade, the pilot work on homestead system reform has undergone three distinct phases. The first phase, from 2015 to 2020, was the exploratory stage for pilot projects. In 2015, the State Council issued the “Opinions on Piloting the Reform of Rural Land Expropriation, Collective Commercial Construction Land Entry into the Market, and Homestead System,” marking the official initiation of the homestead system reform pilots. Between February 2015 and 2020, the number of pilot counties increased from 15 to 104, along with three prefecture-level cities. The second phase, from 2021 to 2023, focused on improving the institutional framework. In 2021, efforts were made to explore the registration of immovable property rights under the “three rights separation” (ownership, qualification, and use rights) for homesteads, as well as the registration of homestead use rights for mortgage purposes. Subsequently, the process of confirming rights and issuing certificates was accelerated, historical legacy issues were addressed, and effective forms for implementing the“three rights separation” were explored. At the same time, methods and standards for paid use and paid exit of homesteads were piloted; localities were encouraged to utilize idle homesteads for the development of relevant industries through self-operation, leasing, or equity participation; and the legitimate land rights of rural residents who move to urban areas were protected, with explicit prohibitions against forcing farmers to relinquish their homesteads solely on the grounds of urban household registration. The third phase, from 2024 to the present, is characterized by deepening reform and comprehensive advancement. Multiple provinces have issued detailed rules for the paid exit of homesteads. At the same time, the scope of homestead transfer has been expanded, allowing rural residents who have moved to cities to transfer their homestead use rights for compensation within their collective economic organizations. In February 2025, the release of the No. 1 Central Document further clarified and focused on the direction of the homestead system reform pilots.
Strengthening talent support
Labor mobility is primarily influenced by wage differentials, employment opportunities, infrastructure, and public services across regions. In the past, the eastern region, with a higher level of economic development and a strong industrial base, especially in high-end manufacturing and modern services, attracted a large influx of labor. In recent years, two-way population flows have begun to take shape. On one hand, urbanization has led to a continuous expansion of the agricultural migrant population. Deepening household registration system reform, relaxing urban settlement conditions, and improving supporting policies have broken down unreasonable barriers to labor mobility, promoting the optimal allocation of human resources. The implementation of a registration system for basic public services at the place of residence has enabled agricultural migrants to enjoy the same rights as residents in social insurance, housing security, and compulsory education for their children. Further relaxation of collective household establishment conditions and encouragement for the establishment of public collective households in towns, streets, villages, and communities have made settlement easier for various groups. According to the “2023 Migrant Workers Monitoring Survey Report,” the urban resident population increased from 710 million in 2012 to 930 million in 2023, an increase of about 31.0%; the urbanization rate of the resident population reached 66.2%, and the urbanization rate of the registered population reached 48.3%, up by 13.6% and 13.0%, respectively, compared to 2012.
On the other hand, the scale of talent returning to start businesses in rural areas has continued to expand, optimizing the structure of rural labor resources. Currently, more than 12 million people are returning to or entering rural areas to start businesses nationwide. Among them, young college students and urban white-collar workers have become an essential force for rural entrepreneurship. The Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, the Ministry of Finance, and the People’s Bank of China jointly issued the “Notice on Further Increasing the Discount on Entrepreneurship Guaranteed Loans to Fully Support Key Groups in Entrepreneurship and Employment,” which provides guaranteed loan support for returning migrant workers. Local governments have also introduced specific policies to support college students returning to start businesses, such as the “Implementation Opinions on Supporting College Students to Return Home for Entrepreneurship under the ‘Hundreds of Thousands of Projects’,” which proposes optimizing the treatment of returning entrepreneurial talent and building comprehensive service platforms for entrepreneurial talent. The Beijing Municipal Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Affairs released the "Implementation Opinions on Supporting Rural Entrepreneurship and Employment for Returning Personnel" in 2020, encouraging urban professionals such as technical staff from universities and research institutions, as well as university graduates, to bring capital and technology to rural areas for entrepreneurial development. Eligible returning entrepreneurs can receive personal entrepreneurship guarantee loans of up to US$43,000, with full interest subsidies provided by the finance department. For partnerships or joint ventures, entrepreneurship guarantee loans are granted at a maximum of US$14,000 per person, with a total cap of US$71,000. These policies offer comprehensive support to college students and migrant workers who return to start businesses, effectively alleviating their financial burdens and promoting the implementation and development of entrepreneurial projects.
Ensuring fiscal investment
Fiscal funds are an essential “logistical supply” for advancing rural revitalization. In 2025, the central government continued to support rural revitalization, allocating US$24.42 billion in subsidies to promote the development of industries that benefit farmers. Efforts to enhance the capacity for stable grain production and the supply of key agricultural products have been strengthened, with increased support for grain production, including subsidies for grain cultivation and agricultural insurance. Rural infrastructure construction has been enhanced through investments in rural roads, water conservancy, electricity, and other essential infrastructure, thereby improving rural production and living conditions. The development of multi-level agricultural insurance has been promoted, with US$7.46 billion allocated for premium subsidies. A system for providing tiered and classified assistance to low-income rural populations and underdeveloped areas has been established, and fiscal assistance policies for the transition period have been examined. The linkage mechanism between government investment, finance, and social investment has been improved, encouraging financial institutions to increase investment in agriculture-related fields and building a diversified investment pattern for rural revitalization.
Local finance also plays a vital role in supporting rural revitalization. For example, in 2022, Sichuan Province allocated US$23.82 billion from its general public budget for rural revitalization, including US$303 million for high-standard farmland construction, US$603.00 million for modern agricultural system construction, US$1.15 billion for the effective connection of poverty alleviation achievements with rural revitalization, US$125.50 million for policy insurance subsidies, US$216.49 million for forestry development, and US$165.48 million for comprehensive rural reform subsidies. In 2023, Shandong Province allocated US$10.52 billion for rural revitalization, supporting grain security, high-standard farmland and water network construction, seed industry revitalization, and the implementation of agricultural machinery purchase and arable land fertility protection subsidy policies.
Promoting data element allocation
Digital rural development is a strategic direction for rural revitalization and a crucial component of building a digital China. Data is a new type of production factor in the digital economy era, supporting rural revitalization in various ways.
Digital infrastructure is a key support for rural revitalization. The Chinese government has accelerated the development of rural broadband communication networks, mobile internet, digital television networks, and next-generation internet, vigorously promoting broadband and mobile communication network coverage in rural areas, achieving full broadband coverage in all administrative villages, and building a unified national medical insurance information platform and universal internet access for all primary and secondary schools. The digital transformation of rural infrastructure is being accelerated, promoting the digitalization and intelligent transformation of water conservancy, roads, electricity, cold chain logistics, agricultural production, and processing, as well as other infrastructure in rural areas. This effort aims to build smart water conservancy, smart transportation, smart grids, smart agriculture, and smart logistics.
The digital economy provides new momentum for the digital transformation of rural industries. The digitalization of agriculture is being promoted, accelerating the deep integration of new technologies with various agricultural sectors, building smart farms, and developing technological agriculture. Rural logistics service systems are being innovated, the “Internet +” agricultural product outflow project is being implemented, the coverage of postal and express outlets is being deepened, and smart logistics distribution centers are being built. Rural e-commerce demonstrations are being expanded, green supply chains are being established, and the integration of online and offline channels is being promoted. The integration of the internet and characteristic agriculture is being promoted, new industries are being developed, and the rural sharing economy is being regulated.
Improving public service resource allocation
The construction of the rural public service system has a direct impact on the sustainability of rural development and the quality of social services in rural areas. In the context of modernization, optimizing the level of rural public services is an essential means to achieve rural revitalization. Rational allocation of public service resources can enhance the quality of life for rural residents and foster social harmony and stability.
Education is the cornerstone of rural revitalization, enhancing the overall quality and skills of rural residents and providing talent support for rural development. Preschool education resources are disproportionately allocated to rural areas, with RMB124.194 billion (US$17.25 billion) of national fiscal education expenditure invested in rural kindergartens in 2021, ensuring that there is at least one public kindergarten per township. The basic conditions and capacity of rural compulsory education have been continuously improved, ensuring that rural children have the same educational opportunities as urban children, and the hardware and teaching staff of rural schools have been significantly enhanced. In 2021, US$766 billion of national fiscal education expenditure was invested in rural compulsory education. Digital teaching equipment was provided to rural compulsory education schools, and the rural student nutrition improvement program benefited 350 million students.
Optimizing medical service resources is crucial to enhancing the health of rural residents and fostering healthy communities. The infrastructure of rural medical and health services has been further improved, the functional layout of rural medical and health institutions has been optimized, and the rural medical and health talent team has been strengthened. Efforts have been made to improve the quality of personnel, optimize and reasonably guarantee the organizational structure, and ensure a reasonable level of remuneration. The prevention and control of key infectious diseases, endemic diseases, and parasitic diseases in rural areas have been strengthened. The rural health industry has been developed in accordance with local conditions, and the integration of health with tourism, the internet, and fitness and leisure has been promoted. Localities are guided to explore the development of the rural health industry.
Rational allocation of housing resources is an important measure to improve the living conditions and quality of life of rural residents. On the one hand, the safety management of existing rural housing is strengthened through regular inspections and the rectification of safety hazards, continuous renovation of dilapidated and earthquake-prone houses, and the timely inclusion and renovation of eligible key objects. On the other hand, the long-term mechanism for the safety management of new rural housing is improved. Rural housing construction should comply with village planning and adhere to principles of land conservation and sustainable use. The design and construction of houses must meet relevant quality and safety standards, and the fiscal budget for the management of rural housing construction should be reasonably allocated to ensure the renovation of dilapidated houses and supporting facilities and to support the improvement of rural housing quality and safety.
Elderly care is a crucial measure to address the aging of the rural population and enhance the quality of life for rural elderly individuals. Rational allocation of elderly care resources is a crucial task, affecting the well-being of hundreds of millions of rural elderly individuals and the successful implementation of the national strategy for an active response to population aging and rural revitalization. Government departments work together to establish a multi-input mechanism and plan rationally: development and reform departments include rural elderly care services in economic and social development plans; natural resources departments improve rural elderly care land policies and coordinate the spatial layout of rural elderly care facilities; county-level and higher governments include the operating expenses of government-run rural care facilities and the funds needed for the support of those in need in the fiscal budget; fiscal departments support the development of rural elderly care services as required; the People’s Bank of China and financial regulatory authorities guide financial institutions to strengthen financial support for rural elderly care services under the premise of compliance and risk control. The Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security is responsible for improving the fundraising and benefit adjustment mechanisms for basic pension insurance for urban and rural residents, as well as raising the level of pension benefits.
Rational allocation of social security funds is an essential means to protect the fundamental living rights and interests of rural residents and promote social equity and stability. In terms of coverage, the legal coverage of social insurance is promoted, and the coverage of unemployment insurance is expanded, allowing more migrant workers to participate in unemployment insurance and enjoy policy protection. Occupational injury protection for flexible rural workers is strengthened, and the “Five-Year Action Plan for the Prevention of Occupational Injuries (2021–2025)” is implemented, focusing on high-incidence industries and enterprises to prevent poverty or return to poverty due to injury. Restrictions on household registration for migrant workers participating in employee pension insurance at their place of employment are removed, and full coverage of basic pension insurance is promoted. In terms of security, the level of social insurance benefits is increased, and improvements and adjustments to basic pension insurance for urban and rural residents are promoted, with timely increases in the basic pension standard. A unified method is promoted for migrant workers and urban employees to participate in and pay for unemployment insurance, ensuring equal treatment. The policy of development, providing skill improvement subsidies to migrant workers participating in unemployment insurance, thereby promoting rural revitalization.
Infrastructure construction is one of the core contents of resource allocation for rural revitalization and the “hardware” foundation for ensuring and improving rural livelihoods. Infrastructure is upgraded to enhance road network coverage, strengthen water supply security, consolidate and upgrade rural power grids, enhance the quality of housing and safety, promote the integration of rural toilet reform and sewage treatment, improve waste treatment, rationally arrange rural community service facilities, and improve digital information infrastructure, thus facilitating the construction of digital villages.
RESULTS
Anji County’s Bamboo Forest Carbon Sequestration Reform
Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) is the most common bamboo species in China, characterized by strong environmental adaptability and an extremely wide distribution. Its growth rate is the fastest among all bamboo varieties, enabling it to rapidly form bamboo forests and provide abundant timber resources in a short period. Anji County, known as “China’s No. 1 Bamboo Township,” has 58,000 hectares of moso bamboo forest and once accounted for 20% of the national bamboo industry output value, despite contributing only 1.8% of the national bamboo output. However, in recent years, due to market conditions, bamboo prices have declined year after year, and many bamboo farmers have chosen to work in cities, resulting in the large-scale abandonment of bamboo forests. To address this, the Anji County government actively promoted green development and ecological enrichment, exploring bamboo forest carbon sequestration reform, building a bamboo forest carbon trading platform, and transforming ecological resources into an ecological economy to achieve shared prosperity.
The government first implemented forest tenure reform to promote the transfer of bamboo forests. The primary targets of land transfer were administrative villages with more than 66.67 hectares of bamboo forest. Transfer payments were managed digitally, with funds distributed directly to farmers, and through specialized cooperatives. Collective forest rights were then transferred to the bamboo forest carbon trading center to implement the bamboo forest carbon enhancement project. Currently, Anji County has established 119 specialized bamboo forest cooperatives, transferred 56,000 hectares of bamboo forest land, and successfully transitioned from dispersed to centralized management. The county has completed US$772.24 million in transfer payments, covering 71 villages, with an average annual increase in collective income of US$89,635 per village and US$931 per household, promoting shared prosperity for forest farmers. The government has also innovated carbon finance products, opening up the entire chain from production to storage and trading through the Bamboo Forest Carbon Trading Center.
By 2023, four banks had granted a total credit line of US$551.60 million to the Bamboo Forest Carbon Trading Center, and 25,000 tons of carbon credits had been traded with 21 enterprises, generating US$238,000 in income, with US$66,800 in feedback income for village collectives. This not only provides direct economic benefits to village collectives and farmers but also supports the sustainable management of bamboo forests. By 2025, Anji County is expected to have over 53,333 hectares of carbon sequestration projects in reserve, with an annual output of over 500,000 tons of carbon credits. This not only produces ecological benefits and enhances local carbon absorption capacity but also promotes the diversification of the bamboo economy and increases farmers’ income.
Anji County’s bamboo forest carbon sequestration reform provides a reference for other regions. Through rational resource allocation, the reform achieves a win-win situation that benefits both environmental and financial interests.
Jiuguan subdistrict’s “future village” construction
Jiuguan Subdistrict is located at the core of the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration, at the intersection of the Shanghai and Hangzhou metropolitan areas, with convenient transportation. The subdistrict already has a robust resource base, with 13 cultural and tourism venues, including straw painting studios, art galleries, and farming museums. It has successfully created a 3A-level scenic street in Zhejiang Province, providing a solid foundation for future village development. With the planning of the Zhejiang Provincial Department of Culture and Tourism to create the province’s only new era rural tourism industry integration development pilot zone in Nanxun District, Jiuguan Subdistrict, under the support of favorable policies, has become a vital practice site for the “Ten Million Project” and the rural revitalization strategy. In response to the demand for common prosperity and digital reform, Jiuguan Subdistrict has seized the opportunity of comprehensive land consolidation and ecological restoration to actively promote the construction of “future villages,” meeting the strong demand of residents to improve the appearance of their villages.
In terms of resource allocation, comprehensive land consolidation is used to integrate land resources, linking digital technologies such as 5G communication and Beidou navigation to create intelligent “digital fields” with integrated precision fertilization, scientific pesticide application, and water-saving irrigation, as well as a digital service system covering the entire process of production, drying, processing, and storage. Jiuguan Subdistrict also attaches importance to inheriting historical culture and creating ancient villages with historical and cultural value, allowing rural cultural heritage to contribute to rural revitalization. Based on existing cultural and tourism venues, plans include further development of characteristic agriculture (rice, landscape agriculture, etc.), ancient building development, and homestays, emphasizing the extraction, inheritance, and development of traditional culture, integrating rural cultural elements into community style, and building spatial carriers and systems for rural culture.
In resource allocation for rural revitalization, Jiuguan Subdistrict, based on systematic thinking of “comprehensive land consolidation,” is gradually building a spatial pattern of intensive land use, integration of primary, secondary, and tertiary industries, and ecological livability, promoting the coordinated realization of goals such as optimizing living environments, improving public services, upgrading industries, and strengthening collective economies.
Qingyuan county’s sweet pomelo industry
Qingyuan County, located in western Zhejiang Province, has leveraged its unique climate and ecological advantages to, serving as an important means of rural revitalization and increasing farmers’ income. Qingyuan County has formulated a detailed development plan for the sweet pomelo industry, with a planned planting area of 3,333 hectares and a total output of 100,000 tons, aiming to build the sweet pomelo industry into a US$1.38 billion industry.
Resource allocation covers the entire chain of sweet pomelo production, processing, and sales. In production, scale and standardization have been achieved through land transfer and the transformation of wasteland and abandoned hills into the most extensive contiguous fruit orchard. To increase farmers’ enthusiasm for planting, Qingyuan County has introduced various support policies, including a subsidy of US$2,068 per hectare for new bases and supporting infrastructure such as road hardening and water-fertilizer integration for bases over 6.67 hectares, further reducing farmers’ input costs. Scientific and talent support is also provided, with annual special training for sweet pomelo, study tours to leading citrus-producing areas, and regular expert guidance. Standards such as the “Sweet Pomelo Production Technical Specification” and “Comprehensive Pest and Disease Control Specification” have been revised.
According to the latest data from 2024, the sweet pomelo planting area in Qingyuan County reached 19,400 mu (1,294 hectares), with an annual output of 14,800 tons and an annual output value of US$26.06 million. This makes it the largest sweet pomelo production area in China, driving local farmers to achieve common prosperity. Currently, there are more than 200 sweet pomelo growers, seven leading agricultural enterprises, over 70 family farms, and more than 3,000 employees in Qingyuan County, which drives the incomes of more than 40,000 people, with the total industry chain output value exceeding US$413.7 million.
Chuxiong prefecture talent returnee entrepreneurship practice
Implementing rural revitalization hinges on people, with the core being "talent revitalization." In recent years, Chuxiong Prefecture has focused on the "returning goose economy" as an entry point, strengthened policy guidance, improved service systems, and stimulated entrepreneurial enthusiasm, effectively attracting a large number of talents to return home and start businesses.
In terms of policy support, the Chuxiong Prefecture Human Resources and Social Security Bureau has established a systematic service mechanism covering policy support, publicity guidance, training assistance, and financial backing. Through measures such as tax and fee reductions, loan guarantees, and startup subsidies, the prefecture provides comprehensive support for returning entrepreneurs, building a policy system that underpins mass entrepreneurship. These policies not only boost confidence in returning to start businesses but also foster a vibrant atmosphere for innovation and entrepreneurship. As of 2021, the prefecture had organized 493,200 instances of rural labor training, issued US$111.59 million in entrepreneurship guarantee loans, supported 4,236 entrepreneurial entities, and created 11,274 jobs. The number of various market entities grew from 124,000 in 2017 to 213,000, a 72.16% increase.
In attracting talent to return, Chuxiong Prefecture also emphasizes combining emotional mobilization with institutional development. By establishing a database of talents working outside the prefecture and leveraging platforms such as labor liaison stations, policy promotion teams, and project recommendation groups, the prefecture systematically conveys information about hometown development and entrepreneurial opportunities to these talents, providing them with informational support for returning to start businesses.
Under policy support, an increasing number of Chuxiong natives working elsewhere have chosen to return home and start businesses. For example, with the coordination of local villages and towns, university graduates have leased land to grow loquats, established cooperatives, and driven 1,286 households to develop high-quality loquat cultivation, covering 867.1 hectares and achieving an annual output value exceeding US$137,900). This initiative not only revitalized land resources but also achieved a win-win for farmers' income growth and industrial upgrading. Another example involves migrant workers returning home to establish edible mushroom cooperatives, creating an integrated production chain covering cultivation, processing, and sales for Stropharia rugosoannulata, with an annual output value of US$413,800. The government has provided continuous support in land leasing, infrastructure construction, and financial subsidies, enabling these entrepreneurs to broaden their paths to success.
CONCLUSION
Based on the institutional background of the rural revitalization strategy, this paper systematically reviews the relevant policy system, analyzes the resource allocation system and the distribution mechanisms of land, capital, talent, technology, and public services, and combined with typical regional cases, deeply explores the important role of resource allocation in promoting rural revitalization. First, resource allocation is an important driver of rural revitalization. Only through the integrated and efficient allocation of land, capital, talent, technology, and public services can the potential of rural development be effectively stimulated, the level of agricultural modernization be scientifically improved, and rural revitalization be promoted in an orderly manner. Second, it is necessary to establish a multi-level collaborative governance system and a locally adapted resource allocation system. In the multi-level governance system of central coordination, local leadership, and village-level implementation, each region develops resource allocation paths with local characteristics based on its own resource endowments and industrial foundation. This promotes an effective linkage between policy and practice, enhancing the relevance and sustainability of resource allocation. Finally, the analysis of typical regional practice cases proves the effectiveness and feasibility of resource allocation. Anji County leveraged bamboo forest carbon sequestration reform to realize the value of ecological resources; Jiuguan Subdistrict built “future villages” through land integration and digital empowerment; and Qingyuan County realized efficient resource flow and value enhancement through a characteristic industry chain. These cases show that scientific resource allocation not only enhances the competitiveness of rural industries but also significantly increases farmers’ incomes and improves rural governance capacity, with strong potential for replication and reference.
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